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SIDDHAM, SVASTI AND OM - INVOCATIONS IN EPIGRAPHS

AND MANUSCRIPTS

by Gouriswar Bhattacharya, Berlin

When an Indian writes a text, religious or secular, he wishes that the writing, the

addresse and he himself be blessed by a sacred symbol or expression which he,

therefore, employs at the beginning of his text. In North India, for example, the

expressions such as om, om durgä, iri harih, iri-iri-harih Mramm, irl-ganeiäya

namah, etc. are used. Some of the expressions used in Tamil Nadu are om, murugan tunai, iivan tunai, etc. Until recently a symbol was used in Bengal which was called

aji and was pronounced as orn siddhih or siddhir astu. In Gujarat this symbol is

called bhale meaning perhaps "be blessed" and it is sometimes read as such by the Jainas. In Tamil Nadu the symbol is now called pillaiyär iuli "Ganes'a's curl", and the children are even today taught to draw it before they begin to learn the alpha¬

bet. Formerly the scribes belonging to different regions of India used to draw this symbol at the beginning of manuscripts. However, the earlier scholars who prepared

catalogues of Indian manuscripts have suggested varying interpretations of this

symbol. Weber {Verzeichnis, 11,3, 1891, p. XVI) supported Bühler's identification of the symbol (two or three signs) occuring in the Jaina manuscripts as a rha rn and considered it as an innovation of the Jainas. Kielhorn {Kleine Schriften, I, 1969, p. 71) identified the symbol used in the North Indian manuscripts (of 11th to 13th century A.D.) as om. These identifications deserve to be reconsidered now. In order to correctly interpret the symbol used in manuscripts, one has to study the origin and development of this symbol in the epigraphs of earlier periods.

siddham (expression)

In the British Museum Stone Inscription of the Kusäna ruler Kaniska, regnal year

10, the expression siddham has been engraved at the beginning {Ep. Ind. vol. IX,

p. 240, plate). The expression has been used by the successors of Kaniska, by the

Ik§väkus (Krishna-Guntur region), the Sätavähanas, the Guptas, and by other dy¬

nasties. In the Central Asian Buddhist manuscripts the word siddham was very

often written at the beginning. As far as epigraphs are concerned, the word siddham

appears perhaps for the last time in the Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharman,

mäava year 589 (= 532 A.D.). - However, the expression does not occur in the

records from Eastern India (i.e. Bihar, Bengal, Assam and Orissa) and from South

India beyond the Krishna-Guntur region.

siddham (symbol)

Scholars of Indian Epigraphy met for the first time with a symbol in the Manku-

XX. Deutscher Orientalistentag 1977 in Erlangen

(2)

Siddham, Svasti and Om 475

war Buddhist Inscription of Kumäragupta I, year 129 (= 448 A.D.). Fleet, while

editing this epigraph {CCI, vol. III, pp. 46 f), read this symbol asow; and the later scholars followed him. It was Bhattasali {Ep. Ind. vol. XVII, p. 352) who identified

the symbol as siddhir astu (i.e. siddham). Supporting his view Bhattasali has re¬

marked that (1) the expression siddham is missing when the symbol appears, and

(2) om is fohowed by this symbol which can not hence be read as om, Mankuwar

Buddhist Inscription is, moreover, not the earliest record to contain this symbol.

Already in the Mathura Inscription of Kaniska, year 4 {Ep. Ind. vol. XXXIV, p. 10

plate), the symbol for siddham does appear. This symbol took different shapes in

different parts of India. The earlier shape is turned to the left, the later ones are

turned to the right. In the Bombay and Karnataka region, a spiral form of the

symbol was popular. To the siddham symbol turned to the right, a sign like Zero

was added probably in the second half of the lOth century A.D. in Gujarat, perhaps due to some confusion with om. Later an additional figure, which looks like a sidd¬

ham symbol turned to the right, was added to the two figures. This was certainly

not a Jama innovation, because in the Champaner Inscription of the time of Mu¬

hammad Shah {sarnvat 1554 = 1497 A.D.), it occurs along with om namah ganeiäya

etc. (see Ind. Arch. Review, 1970- 77, p. 75, plate XXXIII). In Eastern India, some

time about the end of the 10th century A.D., the siddham symbol turned to the

left was used in the vertical position {Ep. Ind. vol. XXII, p. 154, plate). Later an

anunäsika or a candrabindu was put at the top of this symbol {Journal of Ancient

Indian History, vol. IV, p. 69 plate), which was used in the manuscripts and then

called ä/i svasti

Another invocatory expression, which was generally used like siddham, is svasti.

Its appearance in epigraphs is seemingly later than that of siddham. The earliest

occurance of svasti is probably in the copper plate grant of Skandavarman, year 1

(i.e. about the middle of the 4th century A.D.), from Andhra Pradesh {Ep. Ind.

vol. XXXI, p. 9 plate). In the records dated in the Gupta Era from Eastern India,

svasti is preferred to siddham. Also in Western India (e.g. the Valabhi territory) and in the Karnataka area, it was equally popular. In further South, svasti, mostly combined with sri, occurs in the Tamil inscriptions. The most popular combination

of svasti is, of course, with the siddham symbol, which occurs in the whole of

North India, from Bengal to Gujarat.

om

As an invocatory syllable om appeared for the first time perhaps in the middle of the 8th century A.D. {CII, vol. IV, 1, p. 175, plate XXIX: along with the symbol

of siddham). From the middle of the 9th century A.D. onwards, om is repeatedly

used in records. While in Central and Western India om has evolved various forms,

in Eastern India it presents no variety.

(3)

SEIN UND SCHEIN, KUNST UND „KULT" IN DER GRABGESTALTUNG

DES CHINESISCHEN MITTELALTERS

von Magdalene von Dewall, Heidelberg

Als Anregung aus der Sicht des Archäologen, das Augenmerk kunstgeschicht¬

licher Forschung vom einzelnen Kunstwerk weg einmal stärker auf seinen Erschei¬

nungszusammenhang zu lenken und von daher die Basis zur Erfassung des geistigen

Bedeutungshintergrundes zu verbreitern, wird aus dem Bereich der mittelalterlichen

Grab kunst Chinas ein Ausschnitt vorgestellt, der symptomatisch einen breiten

Entwicklungsstrom von der Han- bis zur Sung-Zeit erkennbar werden läßt. Gewiß

gilt schon für die Phasen der Frühzeit, die diesem sichtbaren Verlauf vorausgehen,

daß Einzelwerke, so wertvoh sie künstlerisch sein mögen, als Grabfunde einen we¬

sentlichen Anteil ihrer Aufschlußfähigkeit einbüßen, wenn ihre soziale Einbindung als Grabbeigabe nicht ebenfalls gewürdigt wird. Erst recht wird die Zusammenfüh¬

mng verschiedener gestalterischer Medien der Grabausstattung mit der raum¬

schaffenden Baugestaltung des Grabmals selbst ein nicht nur kunstgeschichtlich, sondern auch geistes- und sozialgeschichtlich bedeutsamer Vorgang, der nach Erklä¬

mng im Zusammenhang verlangt.

Dabei wud deutlich, daß der Tote keineswegs nur inmitten aufgehäufter Besitz¬

tümer zur Ruhe gebettet wurde. Er fand sich vielmehr aufgenommen in einer eigens

für ihn erschaffenen Scheinwelt, die ihren eigenen gestalterischen Prinzipien unter¬

lag. Deren Begriffsbildung ist noch unausgeprägt; unter dem Begriff ming ch'i sind, im weitesten Sinne, Votivgaben für die Toten — ,, spirit objects" im englischen, im deutschen vielleicht ,, Scheingaben" — zu verstehen. Man darf in ihnen die Kenn¬

zeichnung einer Grabaussteuer sehen, ebenso die Betonung von Status und Wohl¬

stand des Grabherrn und seiner Familie. Der Bedeutungsumfang der Scheinbei¬

gaben greift jedoch über die Gestaltungsmittel der figürlichen Kleinplastik und

angewandten Gerätekunst hinaus und bezieht alle anderen bildkünstlerischen Aus¬

drucksformen mit ein; aus der Scheinbeigabe als Gegenstand wird das Scheinattri¬

but einer künstlerisch objektivierten Daseinsform unter eigenem Vorzeichen.

Der Vollzug dieses Vorganges kann hier nicht im einzelnen nachgezeichnet,

allenfalls durch Schlaglichter erhellt werden. Die schon in der frühchinesischen

Gerätekunst vielgeübte Ablösbarkeit eines Grundwerkstoffs durch einen anderen

und die eigenwillige Übertragung medienspezifischer Gestaltungsmerkmale auf

andere Materialien fanden ihre konsequente Fortsetzung in der Vertauschbarkeit

der bildnerischen Mittel in der Grabkunst. Ihr Ineinanderspiel im Gefolge eines

komplexen Ausstattungsanspmchs wohlhabender Familien für üire Gräber setzte

schon vor der Han-Zeit ein und bestimmte mehr und mehr das Gepräge der Grab¬

anlagen. Dabei gaben die - kunstgeschichtlich betrachtet - erst allmählich zur

Selbstfindung üirer wesentlichen künstlerischen Möglichkeiten gelangten Aus-

XX. Deutscher Orientalistentag 1977 in Erlangen

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