Challenges of a future reintegration programme in Somalia : outcomes of an assessment on drug abuse, psychological distress and preferences for reintegration assistance

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Alid/(/dOdom 'fIldl'! (II.

Challenges for a future reintegration programme in Somalia: outcomes of an assessment on drug abuse,

psychological distress and preferences for reintegration assistance

Michael

Odenwald~

Harald Hinkel

&

Elisabeth Schauer

l/a.\('(loII all ass/'sslI/l'lIl 1!/lJIll'rl/()()()Illo/im' mililifl /II/'/IIhl'l:\ fllld lIIifilm)' sll!!!" ill .IPI'I'TI n~!!.ilJ1/.1 oj' ."oll/Illill. Ihis al"lidl' n'jllJrls ou Ihl'l' gum/Js I!/

r/'l/JlJ!/dm!.1 mho lIIighl Tf'/fuin' .I/m·ifll fI/lmlllJ1/

ill II.lii/U,.,' SOJllflli di.\flTlllflmml, dl'lI/ohili;:/llllJ1/

I/Ild ",'illlt:!!,mlioll (J)J)R) /no,!!, mIII III1'. ']hI' fI,l,I"l',UJIIl'fI1 u'lIfflll'll dislilld /mji'1'I'IIC1',1 WI/I"I'nliug .Iir/II1"I' Jl'illll:!!,mlioll a,lsisllIlI(/', lI((ordiug to TI;!',iou, II.!!,I'IIl1d ,!!,I'llda oj'tlll' "",ljJOfulmts. III th/' soulh I!I SOJIIlllill, IIll1r,!!,1' IIl1l1/ha o(vOUTI,!!.1'I',ljJIIIIIll'llt.l" waul [II Jtlurn [oliJ1'lIl/l1 schoo!illg, hut tllI!Y ari' I'\/)fcial(y IlIIrdl'lll'fl I!J' If'III' ,.1'111[1'11 Imllma /lud exhihit d/'I'flll'd /ill/ll'rns 0/ drug us/'. Afauy I!/II/I' olda l"/'IjJolldmls ill lit/' lIortlt 0/ Somfllia flTlfl.limlflll' l"/'.IjJolldfJIls Iltrollgltolll I!/ Iltl' CIJ/(7I11)', !m'li'T /II01/flaTY sll/J!lIJrl .IimTi fI .Iii/lI11' Tl'illll'gmlioll

!JrogmlllJlw 'J his gTIJu!J 1lI~!!,hl Tlllt 1t1/l!1' 1'l'fIli,ltit n/JI'dalioll.1 aholll rI/,/IIohili.:al;11I/ flTIIIIIII' I'Xil/iug /II0rlllll'.1 1!/1'l'illll;!!,mlioll Il.I"Slstl/llCl' llIiglLl 11011111'1'[

Iltl'ir SIJ/'cific 1I1'I'd.,. if IhinJ gmll!J IOIlSi,ltn! oj' n's!lIJllrlm!.1 I...ilh a InioT hydllJlogicll[ hrNlkdOlI'1l 1l',hifh hflrl dism/JII'fI Il1l'i1'I'VI'~J' dl!y.lil/llliollillg fllld mhll JIIight hI' al high l'i,l·k to dew!o!i Sl'/I/'TI' p,~)'(ltillirif dison!as ill IIL/,.Ii1tll,./" as tlI'1IWT/.I{rall'd ill a In'l'l'ilills ,llIlI!Y. '] h/' .lindings suggl:sl tltat, .lilT plllflllillg IIllti ilJljJ!elJlflltalilJ!/ l!l a J)J)R /JTO- grall/IJII', I'nl"iab!r.I'.llIflt as Ih/' /,x!Jf'I'lalilJ1/s, dm,!;

Ill/'alltl lit/'/J~vdwlr~!!,i{'f/l.llrf'l.1 I!/iTlfJir,irlufI[ I'X- fOIllIJflllm!.\" IIl'1'dlo hI' [Ilkal iTl[o IIIIOIIIII.

Key",ords: DDR, dl'lllobilizatioll, disar- IIlarrwllt, n:illtegTalioll, ex-nllnbatants, mIcro level data, Somalia, khat, post trallmatic stress syndrome (P'I'SD), individual expectations

Background

Somalia is one or today's most prominent examples or a"jailed slale" (Gros, 1996), where altcr the filII or Siad Barre's dictatorship in Ill/H, tI](' filT'InlT allied I'dwl groups split off

;Hld jniti,lled a civil war. This n:sultrd in a hllmanitarian catasll'oplH', with hundrcds or lhollsands or deaths (Arheitsl!:emeinsdmli.

KriegsursadH'nfilrschung (AKUF), 20(3), alld milliolls or rdi.lglTs and Internally Displaced Propk (IDP) (UNHCR, 200.'"1).

\Vhih: the very recent upsllrw~or violence may hindI'!' the peacerul clevdopment or the country, the reinstallation or a nation;11 government still nourishes new hopes IiII' t he peace process. Itis est imal ed Ihal in tlw /'ounlry as a w!Joll\ over 50 000 militia arc

('lIrn~ntlyanrwd (\Vodd Balik, 200.1). Their sust ajllabk rrintrgrat ion into civil sOl'ict y will - - - IO!)

First publ. in: Intervention 5 (2007), 2, pp. 109-123

Konstanzer Online-Publikations-System (KOPS) URL: http://www.ub.uni-konstanz.de/kops/volltexte/2007/4061/

URN: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-40619

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C'ltalll!fI/{l!.l'jin ajilluTt,rl!illt(~m/i'l1I/"°1/1111/1111'ifl SOll/alill; ou/ml/lI'r^O{1I1/ (fYI/'ISIIII'II/11//drugflllIIl.,., 11.IT(hlll(~~i(//1 di,l!rI',HIIl1d fm'fi'rfJ//"l'yfiJl ({,iJl"(~m/i{lJlII,Hir/llf1(l', II//nl'fJ//iol/:!(J()7, 'iI/JIll/('5,,Vlllllh"1:!, I'(f,!!,t'

//).'J - In

be am,~orchallellg-eill til(' cOllrse orthe peace process, In this article, WI' wallt 10 draw attention to the distiJl(:1 cxpenations and needs or the men ,md womell comprising the armed g-roups ill Somalia who will possibly he ellrolkd in a rut ure diS,lrmaTlu'III, dl'1II0- hilizat iOIl and reinteg-ration (DDR) 1'1"0- g-raml!l(', \Vith rekrence to 0111' prcviolls sludil~sand a large survey amollg- I<lrrnn alld activc combatants, we idelltiry distillct sub- grollps ill difkrent parts or the cOlllllry, ehal'aderize them by sociodemographic and psychological y,lriabks like expcctations, drug usc or I1ll'lItal problcIlls, and suggest measures IiII' the plallllillg and implenll'lIta- tion orreillteg-rat ion assistance,

The case for Dl.icro level data in reintegration prograDl.Dl.es I'(lr various reaSOIlS, the reintegrat iOIl phase or ))J)I{ programmes is considered the most difJiclllt step (Collier; Elliott, Heg-n" Ilodlln;

\{1~Yllal-Q,lwrol,&. Samhanis, 20(H; Mogapi, 20(1) and, as such, the hahull,(, shed n'\Tals successes and I;\ilures (Brzoska,1999),\Vhile cvaluation or I)I)\{ prog-rammes usually f(}-

euses on macro level alld programllle relatcd outcomes (Colletta, Kost lin&. \VicdcrholCr,

199(;), several researchns dcmonstrated

recently the predictive power or micro level data fill' tIl(' reinleg-ration success or (wmer combatants, Rde\'ant characteristics or subgroups and individuals are, I(lr ex,nnple, Ihe

abIlSivl~Jl(~sSortll(' l'x-combatant 's lilf1lllT civil war I;letion (\Veinstein&. HUlllpllreys, 200.'1), or the level oreclucatioll (Ayalew &. Ikl"(,(Hl, 2(00), I^II our 2002 household su rvey ill Ilargeisa, about seven years alkr Ihe lasl civil-war-like violent outhre,lk ill Somal iland, we f(HlIldllj'X. okx-comhatants continuously unable to participate ill ilH'ol!1(' generating activities dlJ(~ 10 severe mental pmhkms (Odellwald, NeunCf, Schauer, Elhert, Catalli, Lillgeldddel', Hinkel, Hiifill'r &. I{ockstroll, 110

200:» ^I,WI'cxplained this hig-h IlIlmbcr with the vny rl,(,ljlll'ntly ohserved I'Xl'('ssivckhat usc among- lill'nHT combalants, which is kllowlI to bc related to t IH' development or pSyl'ho! ic symptoms ( )lkllwald, 20m), 'I'IH' kayes Ill' thekhatshnlb, which contain thc amphetamine-like cat hinone, are traditioll- ally chewl'd in Ali·iean al}d Al'ab COllllll'il'S, In recent decades, Ihccl'ol}omicimporlalHT and consumplioll or khal Ieavl's lIavc incrl'ased dramalically whik individllal lise p,lIterlls have IInderg-()IH' pnll<lIl1ld changl's, /i'()I1I socially n~g-nlatcd10IInCOIl- t rolll·d COlISllIll pt ion (Odellwald, 20(7), In Somalia, thekill/ttradeis IrpOl'I('(II)' among IIll' means or inconH' IiII' civil war bl'lions, allli comhatants arc liTl]Ill'lIllysllpplied wit h IIH'dl"ll~by their Ieadcrs (t5N, :!OO:{), Thl' high IHlIllher or l'x-combatants being IIl1abk to reintegraw inlo pmdlldivc civili,m Iik dill' to vari at ions⁰¹¹IIll'11\icro In'elm ight considerahly n,dllce IIll' ('('ol}omic dividends rrom the n·illll'gl·al ion orli.rt1wr ('omhalallts to the whok ('Olllllry, Thus. empirical ^1'1'- search alld l'vaillation within DDR pro- gramnll'S shollid fileuS on the idl'lIlilieation orvariahlcsOilIhis kvel, which arc pn'didOl'S or risk 1;U'tOl's li)/' sllccessrul n,illll'gralion.

,mel how ITillll'gralioll progl'ammes call modily tlll'III,

EDl.piricai asseSSDl.ent of Dl.icro level data in SODl.alia

III onllT10prepare IiII' (ilt lin'DD\{activit ics and 10 ident ify groups who dcservc spccial alienI ion, in tlH' secolJ(l halror20ln, a survey was l'arried out among adivl' militia members in seven regiolls or Somalia (Ikutsdll' (;eselbelrali l'lil.'liThlliselll' ZlIsamnwnadH'il (Cnmall'li'dlllical Coopnation) (;TZ IS, 20ln)~),

Smn/lli,,1!.(/Julj!al'tici/Jallls,Sampl illg illvolvcd a IIInT-slagcproces~,'n

,I

lirst slep, tlU' scven Irgiolls were selel'led throllgh I'XplTt rating

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in order to indude the lTg-ions with the hig-hest militia density, In order to set up 11ll' pnlposed eanl0l1llll'II1 phase aeeonlillg- 10 1I11' nTOIIII 1Il'lIdat iOlls or Ihe Somali ;\/a- liollal Renllleiliatioll Conf(,renC\' (SNRC) at Mhag-hati, Nairohi, the reg-ions chosen were where most orthe ellCampl1lent arcas (1l7'X,) Ii!'. These reg-ions also induded the major poplliation and economic centres or the eOllntry, as wdl as important rural areas:^I^, In each region, in((T\'iews were conducted with alllill'tiolls who eollahorated, A mini11111111of one /,flli,./, unit within the overall slnl('tlln' was l'Olllpkldy assessed, whereby militia le;ukrs decided which IInit was choseII. or IIIl' 11I;!jor Etdions, all bllt one collaborated with till' n'sl'an'h pn!jeel.

III the third step, all members or the appoillted lllililar'y/llIilitia 1I11ils were approached alld asked to participate in the interviews.'

Strid random sampling initsurwy eoncern- ing- tlw very sensitive isslle orrkmohilizatioll in Somalia was not kasihk, A (kt,likd deseription of (he sampling strategy is provided hy ()(kllwald, IIillkd, Sehalll'r', Nelllwr, Schaller, Ell wr( & Roekslroh, (sllh- miltnl).

In total, _1l7~t{ llIili(iamen alld slTllrily slalr were illllTviewl·d. 'l'lll' analysis indllded

Ill~4inter'views or rTspOlH!ents (~n,1%), who had given their consent to Iw imerviewed a^IIIIwho rllllillni minimal standards (a mini- Illllm or10interviews per interviewer; limlls l'lllllpleted). The sllrvey induded less than

!)o% or all armed stall' in Somali land and ahollt B'Y" or the total estimated numher of anlll'd personnd in the rest or Somalia. Of these,'1070 bdongnl to regiollal aut hori( ies in Somalilalld alld Punt lalld,~~()Oto warlord rnilitia, IO~)O (0 rn~danlT alld dan-based militi;t,4B1I0 Shari a eOllrllllililias alld 7B10

!>usilwss llIilil ias. Soeiodemographic data arc prTsl'lIted ill 'Ethic I.

:l1irhaP/ Odemrlaldetal.

[11/:ifltemiews, Polit ical leaders gave permis- sion 10 participate ill the study during pol itical eOllsllh al iOlls. Local i1I1lTviewer leams comaCled the commanders or the sdeeted unib and appointments IiII' interviews werc made. Commanders were asked 10 ill IilrlTl their ullit melllhers hdilrehalld ahout the assessment. In other words, to report that the interviews were part of a preparatory activity IiII' a future DDR programme agreedOil by their liIctioll leaders.

()n 11ll' appoillll'd day, illlcrvil~WlTS wl~nl

dinTlly inlo Ihe eompoulld IIs1~d hy the respective military/militia units to condllel 1I11' illdi\·idllal illllTvicws. IlIllTVil'WS WlTl~

conducted in a place that provided as milch privacy as possible, sllch as in a separate room. Interviewers informed participants bdilre the interview about the purpose and method or the interview, about confidential- ity and about the voluntary nature of the interview. Finally, all participants were

gi\'l~1I all opporlllllil y 10 ask qlll~sliOlls.

The illtrrvil~wl~l~gave eOllsellt orally bdim~

IlwillllTVil~WSWl'l'ecOlldIlCtl~d.

Irl.\lmmmls. TIll' lJuesli()flllail'l~ uSl~d in IhI' aSSl'SSIllI'nl was dr,sigrwd as acOIllIHrlwllsivl~

and slandardizl~d insll'llllll'nL (!-IIl'SI iOilS alld dOSl~d answr~rs WI'I'l~ dl~vdoJled ill English and translated into thl' Somali language according to international standards (independent back-translation). This was done by an interdisciplinary tcam ('()llsisting or Somali and illlernational experts on demobilization and mental health, health and gender. The inf(JrInation assessed comprised basic, sociodemographic variables, health status, prekrences in an cv."n\ \lal !i.rlllre reinlegral ion progrannnc, alld indicators or psychological disl rcss.

Prf;/i>reuct'jiir rt'intq;mtion assistantt'. We asked each respondent to choose Iwo types 01" rein-

tq~rationassistance modules out 01" a pre- deli ned list, which was explainedtohim/her

III

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j.3

Table1. Sociodemographic information on8124active armedforces and militia staff in seven regions of Somalia Corrected Somaliland Puntland Hiran Bay :\Iogadishu :\fogadishu Kismayo

Total^l 3903: :.854.:696, ,604 ~orth :654', South ,814: :599, p test statistic:

~ ~ :"

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t

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--- ^.,,' 2: .~

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-..;. ;;:'

:...: E'"

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% )1

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3 g'

Age~ 3·Li,4.,9 41.3 :12,6, 37,1 :12,8, 39,6,12,5 30,5,'9,2: 29.1 ,'9,3, 30,38,7, 3·U12,6'

<

0,001 :21LTl

%male 933 5,8 82,8 89,9 97,7 97,5 96,3 98,5 90,5

<

0,001 '370,2,1

%married or ,\·idc)\\·cd 63,3 10,8 73,4 76,8 71,0 63,1 52,0 49,1 57,9

<

0,001 ,597,0,4

:\umber of dependants² ,i,9 2,0: 6,8.5.6', 9.2 ,6,1: 7,2,i,5\ 4,85.1, 3.4 :45: 4,3,+,9 5,5 ,..5.5:

<

0.001127,4',~

'j't]primary education 4Ll l1:i1 +9,2 38,8 34.1 32,4 22,1 4.8,4 63,0

<

0,001 335,0: 1

completed

%withany yocational 22,0: 13,6: 24.7 H,:i 17.7 7.1 12.7 12,+ 35,2

<

0,001+60,5: {

training

°lr),\-ith combat 75.0 ,22.3 +8.4 82,1 8-U 100,0 70.2 96.9 43,1

<

0,001 :1516,0:I

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J", 3

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Expect~d\'alue (stundard error olmean), corrected for ;ample size, 'Mean !;\andard deviationI, .' A1';0\'A.df=6,.jex7 Chi' test.

experience

P^YJlut's indkate~tali~tjc<tl;ig:::if](,~llCe-ot"rf'zional di f."erCl1("(,:'-, dl=6,

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hy III(' inIIT\·iewIT; a lirst and a second PIT- liT"II(T, The lisl conlained: (I) rdurn to

!iJrlnal cducation (schooling-, nniyersity), (~J

puhlic works (occup<ltion ill lahoul' iulcnsivc work prog-r<lmnH's), (:1) ajoh in thc private securit y

S'·...

OI·, (4) a g-I'anl in ordcr to huild up a new OI'expaud an already existing- small or micro l'ntITpl'isl' (SME), (:») rural inte- g-r,ltion as Il('nltT01'ErrllH"r, (ti) training- on t Iwjoh in pri\'al I' cOlnpanics, who I' ,Ilahorate willi III(' DR P. (7) participation in a voea- lional II'aining- course in onllT to aC'luin' spl'l'ilic skills (ckctrieal ellg-iIH'ITillg, aulo mech<lnics, mda I wOl'k, ca .-pcnt ry, masonry, handcralis, coastal fishing-, olhel' yocaliollal t raining-).(B)ot lilT liJrln orassistance wished, and (!I) no n'integl'at iOlI assislancc.

P~l'd/()I,~~i((/1!lfo!JIfll/S IIlIfllIIar lP!alftllrll1lT1w.\Vc tried to i(kut iry n'spondellls wit h a history orpsycholog-ical prohlems, hy asking whd her they had I'VlTexpcricnced a pITiod orat k,lsl 4 weeks when Ihe)' conld not work Il('cause or psycholog-ical prohlems. ill a sinlilaT way

10a pn'vious study (OdellwaldcI aI.,200:».

This way or assessiug- disnlpl iOll or cvcry day runctioning proved 10 1)(' sensitiVi' to dclc("\ severe disonl(Ts, sneh as psychot ic disordns. 'Il'aunla was assessed hy six higilly rdiahk itl'lllS or t he Somali VlTsion or the post t l"aUlllal i.. diagnost ic scak (PDS; hla,

19~r»).which WI' had adaplcd to the Somali lang-nag", nillurc, alld Islamic ITlig-ion and evalnaled ill a prcvious study (Odenwald, l.ingrull-ldlT, Schaucr; NcuI 1('1; RIll'ksl roh, Hinkd & Elhert, snhmitted), The PDS is a widdy uS1'l1 sdl~report instrument lill" the asseSSIlH"1I1 or post traumatic stress disonllT (PTSD) wil h good psycho!lll't1"ic propert iI'S and validit y (hM, Cashmau, Jaycox &

Pc rr y. 1!1!17; (;riflill, l rhlmausiek, Rcsick &

Mechanic,~otl4-).'I'he six itcms werc also lIsed to assess 'Partial PTSD' (pPTSD). Ag-ainst the gold slandanl, PTSD diagnosis by a dinical inlen·iew usilll-!: thc Composite Inler-

nal iOllal Dial-!:lIostic Interview ((;IDI, \Vorld 111'alth Organi/.alioll, 19!17) IiII' pPTSD had a specilicity orO,Clli (:>~ 01":>4 lIon-I'TSI.>

C,lses correctly detl'("II'd) allll a sensitivity or

().c)(I)or II P' I'SI) cases COlTlTt Iy detccted).

In sUllllllary, our measurc on war rdated trallllla is J'l'liahlc hut produces a systematic Ullderest ilIIa\ ion or tI ' l l ( 'PTSD prevalcnl"(,.

/nln7'iI'lJwTI, ImiT/in,1!, lint! .HI!iI'IBisio7l: 1lIter- vi"wITs WITI' slalrorloca! N(;Os with inter- vil'wing cxpericncc (:"=

:m).

Prior to data collr-ction, a l4-day training cours,' was conducted in Harg-eisa, Slllnaliland. The training !'ontain"d inlnldnclion or DDR/

DRP and dini!'al !,OlIlTpIS, as wd! as researeh d,'sig-n, interviewer training ill role-play and lidd I'xereises, and prepara- t ion IIII' tlw "xIIlTled prohlr-ms in the fidel.

The supervision or inllTvicwers in southern SOlnalia wasn~ali/.edthroug-hout the assess- IIll"nt phase hy satdlite phoues, radio and lidd visits by a Somali team memher. An intense awareness e,unpaig-n Ihroug-h till"

loca! press, radio and tdl'vision Inqlan'd the groundIlII",and lililowed up, Ihe ongoing opcration with daily rq)OI'ling. No sccurity incident W,IS reporll~d dnring Ihc whole 01" the assessment pITiod, AlilT Ihc asscss- ment, local nong-ovlTnnll'ntal organi/.ations (:'\(;( )s) handed inlhe questionnaircs at the (;TZ'> IIlli('(' in Hargeisa and assistcd in daIa I'nl ry.

/)11111 IITlIl/l'sis: 1·!.lr each reg-ioll, we n~porl

Ihc uncorrected coefficients fI)r propOl'lions, Ilwalls and standard deviat ions. 011 theI,~vd

ol"lhc total population, we report ('(l('lllci"nls t:orrccted lor sample si/.l\

Etnpirical findings

Drug us,': Based on Ihis survey, wc rcccntly cst irnated till' USI' ol"six types orpsycholropic and narcolic drugs among- active and I!.lnller comllatanls in Somalia:khal/miraa, hashish, psydlOacI ivc tahlr-ts, alcohol, in halants, and

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ChalleugnJilTIIJiftUTf T/,illl~!!,mlilJT/!ml!!.'f11TlTTlI' ill SOfl/alia: IIUIWflI!'SI!/aTl (HSf.HlllflllOil rim,!!, 01J((.>!', fi,~}'t://Olr~!!,i((l/ dislTI'.H(llIrI!m/;'T/'JI(fsji" T/,illlrj!,mli,JT/ a,lsi"lall((', /TlI!'T/'l'IIlillll :!1)()7.,',,fOIJ(I'.r" ,M(Jobn:!, I'o.!!,!'

/(J!) - I:!:l

b(wgi seeds (Odemvald el aI., submitted),

Ac:cordin~ to these est imales, k!wl is the Illlmlll'r Olle drug over all or Somalia, ()n aVlTa/!;e, in the week prior to interviews, respolldents estimated that klw/ was con- sumed by69,:J'Y..ort heir com racks (1II1'IUlll'rs or the same unit as respondent), hashish by IB,2%, tablets by 14,4%, alcohol hy 11,2%, inhalants by :{% and bangi seeds by 1%, There arcsi~nificant r('~ionald iIli-relll'es in relation to perceived drng lise: whereas iu nortlwrn Somalia,khatwas viI,t ually Ihe ollly dnl/!; bein/!; eonsllmClI ill armed li)rces unils, in SOUIlll'nl alld eelltral n~~ions, usc levels or hashish and tablets reach alarl1lin~ly

high levels,

lJi,mbili!)', jJ.I'ydlOlrw,ical !!rohlems and war retaiN!

trauma. About 12'1.. or the respondenls

reported that they had experienced a serious war related injury at any time, At Ihe time or the interview, OVlT IO'Y.. or our sample present I,d wil h an obvious physical handicap or impairment, sueh as a missillg limb. Five plTlTlI1 or inten,iewlTs reported at least Olll' pniod orpsydlOlogical breakdown with the r1isruptioll or everyday fi.lJlCtioning iu

their history. Sixty nnll' p!TlTUI or rcspondellls repOl'ted at least OUl' Iypical PTSD symptom: IUlwaJllrd alld illl rusive memories or sl resslirl sit uat ious, allcmpls to ,I\'oid lhem, Sl'use or a lilJ'(~shortelJerl fillul'I', 1'11'- valcd jumpiness and sleeping diflil'llhics.

Partial PTSD (pPTSJ)) could Ill' (iHllld ill 11,1'1.. or the respondents"- Iu onllT 10 copc with their war related nwmOl'il's, 29% or the interviewees reported Iha I^khatl'onSlJlllp- Iiou helped to 'fi.rgct' t Iwm,

Reinlt',I',Trlti(!7I assis/mll'l'!m:Ji'TI'IIU'.I',Thc expectations "hout, allli pn'liTl'IIlTs Ii^II', reintegration lIIoduh~s Irvcakd some surprises.

'rht, mosl rn~qlll:ntlyselcC\erl (ill'lns or tirsl assislanlT were: grants (ill' small ,md lIIi!TO t'1I11TllIises (SME) (:(9%), the ITtUI'll 10 limnal l~dueation (2a'y'.) and voclt iOlla I lrainin/!; (J:~%), As second choice, 1II0St liT- qunltIy vocational training (2()%), gl'imts li)r SME (2+%) and 1'\11'011 inlt'/!;I'aI iou (17'1..) were se\cctt'd. Thlls, Iradii iOllally easy-to-apply tools, likt' nll'al integration and elllploylllt'llt ill IIIl' private sCl'Ilril y

Sl~ctor,Wl'f(' only pH'liTrnl by a small numlwI' orlllililia nI('IIlI)(:rs,

45 40 ^38.9 35 30 25

~ 20

15 10 5 0

GrantlSME Return to formal

~dlJc:aliul1

first and second choice of assistance wished

(Currt!t:leLilulal; N-=."81201)

VOC(.ltion.11 Rural Traillirl~on PUblic works Private

Iraining int~gration the job security

sectnr

Reintegration tools

Other No assistance assi5t~ln(:e

"':!!,url'1: hnl(!!,II'J'hlln)IIfIIl,ll'I'lIlIdI'!wit'l'(black bllT,I) '!I'Tl'ill/(!!,m!iIJ1lllni,I/rIT/u'",i.Il,,'t!h)'(JilT/lin){'(uuhlllllllh

i"SIiIT/IlIiIl, Blln i"diI'IIII' !iI'lo'lIla,!!,!',\',

III

(7)

'I 'here were marked n~g-ion;l! di IIiTelll'l'S rdated to t he choices fill'n~integ-ration assisl- amT_ In p,lI-lien);lI-, Ihe IIIl1nher or respondents who sl'hTled Ihe options 'g-rant (ill' S;VIE'and'n~tllrntofill'mal edncation'as first choice assislanlT, dilli.Ted )..!;reatly hetweell nxions, In the north orSomalia, a hig-h pro- pOl-1 ion sdeded Ihe option 'grant (ill' SM E'

\Somaliland n'Y.., I'lIntland ;(,%), in con- II-asl 10 Ihe sOllth (Hiran ''!-ll'y'" Bay l)'y'"

Mog-adishll, northern part2(i%, Mog-adishu, southern pal't 2H'y'., Kismayo 42'Y.,), ill a total or,~ 'lfiB ITspOlH!cnls. Among- them, 17'Yc. wen' !i.'male (n

=

nli, or B2% or all km,l!e respondenls), and a );lI-g-e propol'lion or this g-mlll' rdilsed to sdect any filflll of SITOIHIehoi('(~assistance at all (fli'y'" n= ti71 n'spOlHknls). The I're/(,rences IIlI' 'return to fill'lnal edlleal ion' (as first choice assistance) w('n' t he most fi'eqnently selected in some reg-ions or southern Somalia (Bay/Bakool (il)%, Mog-adishu, northern part :1H%, southenl pal't4.'i'y',),in l'onll-asl to the otlll'r reg-ions (Somaliland 4'Yc., I'nnllall(l 7'1."

Hiran12'1..,Kismayo2:1%)_

Identification of subgroups with distinct needs

In J)J)I{ prog-ralllnI('S, sl'vlTal sllhgroups or IWlw(ieial-i('s an' eonsi(!l-red to have specific lIlTds, slleh as: child soldiers (UNICEl';20m, King-ilia, 2000, Verhey, 20(1), persons wi t h disahilities dlle to physical handie;!" or psy- ehiat ric disorder (Mogapi,2()(14,(;eal;2002, Bieber, 2002, Ayalew ;!nd Ikl,(,(llI, 2000, l\1chrcteah,2002, Ejigu & (;cdamu,I~)l)(i),or wonll'n, who had hecn part ofarlllies^0/'rd)('1 g-rollpS (J)e Wa((cville,2002).CUITently, I)('sl practice in J)J)I{ n~qllin~s lhe indllsion or compOlwnls lill- IIl('se especially vulnerable groups ((:olldla,20(1).

Based on 0111' data rrom Somalia, we i(kn~

tifil'd three additional SUhgToUpS ofrcspon- dl'IIIS, who require special attenlion in

.Hie/lad Udatll'aldelaI,

til(' DDR process, In'nlbk 2, we display the s,wiodnnographic characteristics of these /-{n>ups,

(;rou/J I: (!71realistic ('x/JI'f!otif!1ls f!/ JrlflTw/m)' luNJflrt, Espccially inlll(' nOl-' h of til(' eOllntry, and amongthe older and the (i.,lIIale I-espon- l!t'nls, a larg-e nllmher of individuals wanted money inIhI' ((lUn or a gnlllt fi.lI- a bllsiness (SM E)_ This mighllw rdaled10thc sociodc- mographic characleristics or thcsc n:spon- denis, being gCIH'rally oldcr than those who sc!no(n) ot hcr reimegration tools, and heing- morc

on

en kmak, all or who might not lind the olli.Ted training mod II lcs, filnnal edncation, or making- a new start as herder or hrrnler to he adeqllate IIlI- tlU:1l1. Espccially IiII' WOllwn, SM E mighl have Iwen t II(' only reinteg-ration tool they IIlIIIld acceplahh"

In accord.. mT wit h III(' Somali Iradii ional rig-ht, and in ahselHT orpllhlic social sccurity systems, womcn (iTquently inheritpaid posi- tiollS or d(Teased mell and become part of the military units. In a kw cases, woml,'n had hecn act i"c lighters du ring the liheral ion war, but mostly they had assumed other responsihilities within military ,lI1d militia ullits, such as cooking- or e1eaning. Especially in thc Nonh or Somalia, a relatively hig-h pcrccntage ol'women arc011the govennTl('nl payroll, and will Iw part or rut un, (kmo- hilii',ation and reintegration programmes.

'Ihulil ionally, wOlllen in Somalia have a weak position, which can be explained by the male dominance within the traditional pasloral sociel y, However, therc arc rcmark- ahlt, difli.:rences rq~arding women's social position within the country, Ollicially, it mighl he denied to women to hold land rights and posscss busincsses, especially in conser- vative and flllldamentalist segments of the population. However, esplTially in economic ('('nt n's,worn(~nan, fY-l'lJ!l('nlly (Tonomically aeliVI\ as Pl:lJy traders and shop owners, or in cooperatives, sineI' they simply have to It')

(8)

(;!Lflllr,1(}!.K\·./iJrfI./illll.rf rf.'illli:!!,fal;oll1}f(~!!,TlIIIIIJJ(,^illSOJl/alia: ouIUJIfJ('S(!{all flS,H',n1/tf'1I1Oil dfUp.({!Jus€"

!J.I")'dllJ!,,!!.;m!1Ii.,/II'\\IIJ/(I!JTI'/i'INII"I,.,jiJl If;II!J,!{IIII;ml II,I.I;,'/f/II(I',1"11'11'1'"1;,," :!()()7,r,llf/f//('5,,;'v/I/I,//('fJ, Hlg,.

lOY - I:!.'j

Table2 Characteristics ufthree groups who deserve special attention in a future Smn.ali DDR prugram.

(;mup I: Gmul':Z: Croup:1:

Urm'alislic "(ll'Illaleducalion Vuhwrahle 10 ('xp('('tat iOlls alllI reinlq.!,'l'alion S<,\'('IT n1l'1I1al

(1mU) _I~\ilure (14:Z1) disonlns (:t!2)

SME I'(ll'ma) educal iOIl I)ivns(' Mostly Norlh Moslly Soul h AIIIIll'COUllt ry olO,li (12,11) 2B;1 (7,9) :1,\1; (11,4)

17,(; 2,0 'k\)

1:-\,7 4:1,() :\!},I

7,2(~,6) :\,:\ (43) 'l,l;(,\0)

46,0 4:\,:\ :m,1

2:\H 12,4 111,9

2,H 7,2 Ttl!

0,9 (13) I,!} (I,~)

:\,+

^(1,1;)

:\,2 Ii,:> )\2

273 5(i3 !)~\2

B,7 (11/» IOil (103) 10,0 (12,0)

24,:\ :12,~) 47,5

Expn'tal ion lowards n·illlq!;rat iOIl Rq!;ion Ag-(' '1.,kmale

% sing-Ie Ikpendanls

'1.,prim'lry educalion '1.,any vocat ional t rai ni ng

%pPTSD

Nnmlwr or trauma symptoms '1., Paranoia

'1.,sdf~reported kha!

use lasl week

Q,u<llltit yofsdl~rcport('(l

kha! US('^1)('1'weck (usel's only)

'1.,cxcessivekhatusc alllong chewers (>2 hundles/day) last week

'1.,sdf~medication film!in units last week H,lshish in units last week 'Ihhlcls inunils last week Alcohol ill units last w(Tk '1.,comhat exposure

Agc oflirst combat exposure '1.,severely wounded in war

% physical impairment

~),~l

70,4 ('t\,2) ,'i,1)(I:l,li) '1,5 (12,7) :\,0(9,1i) :>B,O 21,7 (~},O)

l/i,2 1Il,3

:m,o

7'2,2 (22,0) 21,4 (2:\,4) IB,:\(21,1) II,h (17,11) m,1) I(l,B (;I,li)

!)':I

~l,'}

5'1,0 W,I (:\I,(})

15,11 (2:\,(}) 12,5 (20,0) h) (Ili.(}) 71i,4 2:1,0(I)))

I\B 17,4-

eanl an IIll'Ollle to sustain their f;unilies some with high levels ofsllcccss. This sccnario olkrs at least somc possibilitics ()r rcintl'- grat ion modules lill' km;lIebendicial'ies, TIll' high nurnl)(T orlwndiciaries who opted fill' 1lI0nelaI'ysupport probably also rdkds

Il(i

inappropriale cxpcdalions connTning a DDR programmc, in thc sense or seeing it

a,~a chanccInsimply acquilT a hll'ge a111011IIt or mOlll'Y. III the SOlllali pilot DR!' pm- graJTlllle, SME pnlv(·d to Ill' a I'dativdy expensive reilltegratiolltool, Iwcalls(' g-rallts

(9)

had to 1)(' slillicient ell(lIlg"h to enahle the 11Iliidiul-': lip, or cxpallsioll, ora husiness aud ill(lividllali/,nl solut ious wit h a hil-':h ueed lill' advisory sel"\·ices. J)II(' 10 IIII'hig-h cosls and the lilllitl'd ulIlIIl)('r or peopk lilting the re«ui,wl qllaliliealioll pmlik, ill rllture J)J)t{ pml-':I',ulunes, S~E should only 1)(' olkrnlto a slllallulllllhn or people who 1'111 Iii allj)l·(TOIulitiolis. Howcvcr, a lilture Somali J)J)t{ pml-':I',IIUUI(' IIIl1sl also take into ,\(TOIUlt IIII'11('('(ls oroldcr and kmale parti- cipauts; allocating- more reSOlUTes to the a,'('ral-':e individual reinteg-ratiou prol'('SS iu order to allow a greatn pmportion or re- spolldnlls to g"o Ihmugh au Sl\1E1001.(ll-, il could develop specilic olli-rs lill' this targ;ct group, like vocatioual traiuiug- lill' liemales.

At the same tillie, it has to addn'ss unrealistic ex peel at iOlls COUClTU iUl-': IUOUel al'y g-rants.

LJnrealist ic ('xpecl al ious lIIay lead to dillintl- tics iu a rlltllreDD){prog;ramme, aud mighl even have Ihe pot cui ial to threaten the pro- gnuullle\ primary g"oals. lu such cases, lill'-

IlIncOlnhalanls lied l)('tray('(1 or rrustrated Iwcallsc Ihcy did not g"cl as llIuch llIouey as ('xpITled, and they mil-':ht turn away rrolll IhI' progralllnw, or resort to violelHT. Iulighl or Ihe Etd thai only a eertaiu pelT('utage or participants or a 1;"'g<T J)J)t{ pmgralllllle qualilies li)l·tlw part ieipal iou ill all SM E tool, and that a suhstautial propOl'lion will have to he reiutegrat('d iuto rlll'alliJrll1s or suhsis- tenc<\ the cOlulllllllication and inlilrmatiou ahou! IIII' di lIi'rent reintegratioll modules will h;I\'e to 1)(' \'(TY ('xplicit and clear, and must1)('prqlalTd aud sllpported hy a sl roug inliJrlnatiou aud scnsitization campaigll.

The sekctiou nilcria lill' participallts or till' Sl\1 E Illodule should tlwrdim' he hoi h slrid alld Iransparent to everyoue, Si11I111-

taneollsly, the advantag;('s or less 'poplilar' IOols. lill' older p,u·ticipants, should1)('high- lighted. As nitnia lilr SME, ascCl"taining whclhlT hasic husiuess skills already exist or

illidlfld Or/eml"tfr/1'(af.

caul)(' Iraiu('(l, whetherane('onolllically pro- lIIisiug- 11Ilsill('sS idea can1)(" developed and whclhn klllale r;unily memhers can 1)(' indllded in a responsihle position iu SM E pro- jects will he n(Trkd,EXJl(Ti(~JI(Tgaill('d iu all SI\1 E support al'l i"it y hy the ECjGTZ pilot (;' IZ, :2(04) pmjects sllpports t his approach.

(;roU!1'2:P~vrltolr~t:icallnohlems (lmlrf'lunJlrdimflfll ('(lum/i'lII. E,sp('('ially in the sOllth or the count ry, a large group or yOllllg respondents sd('('I('d lilt' n'llIrll 10 limnal l'ducation as their firsl choice or reinteg-ration assist<ln(:('.

Only:m(:2'Yo. )amon~them were kmak.This g;rollp reported hi~hIevl'ls or liT(IIWIlI combat exposure, and were on aVITaw' limr y";(I'S younger thau the olh"I' combatants at the time or their lirsl e(Hnhal "XpOSIlI'l'. Th"re- Jilre, it was not suq)risiug- lhal Ih"yn~por"'d

t ralllna symptoms more IiTI}lwntly: 7WYo.

compared to 47'Yo, in tilt' rest or the sampk (p<,(01). 'rtleY WI'IT also more likely to «ua- lily IiiI' pPTSI>. Additionally, Ihey admitted to ('hewing-khat more orten and to l'Ill'win~

excessivdy. What is more alarming is Ihat Ihey orten reported that klw/ wonld help them to li)rgl'l stresslill war related ('xpni- enccs. In their units, we also lillllld tlm'l'li)ld hi,!!;hn hashish, akohol and tablet eOllSllmp- t ion compared to t he rest or t he sampk.

III SUlllm;\I'y, this ~mllp showed alarming cha rarterist ies ^())I l he llIilTO InTI that sug-- gest thai a larg-(' plTI'l'ntage or them might he al risk or 1;lillllT in any reintegration pro-

~ramnw, Iweausc or hig-h levels or psyeho- log-ieal trailIIIa alld drug abuse7. Furt her- more, ^WI' lilllud Ihat drug intake among llwlll orl('n has the runction or helping to lilrgl'l trallillalie war experiences (Kulka, Sdl!<'ugn, E\irbank, Hou~h, Jordau, Marmar & \Veiss, 19~H)). Self~mediealiou

or PTSJ) symptoms hy khat lise can probably be explained hy Ihe allevialion or depression-like symptoms as (lescrihcd lilr t raumatiz(~d<Ill1plwtalllilll' users in western

117

(10)

(''lwllmge,'ji,r(l.Iii/urI'reilll(~mtiIJ11 Im~~mmlfJeill SOlfJl/lil/: (){tlUJ/f){'Sorm/ l/\.wUI/I('III oil dmg((/IllSI', hydl/llr~~i((/Idi.,lre,u IImllm,!;'r"",.,.sj;,rr('i,,/~!!,mliolllI,ui ..II/"I''', 1,,/uIII'II/ioll 2007,hJlIIJIII':i,JV;IlIl/l,.,.2,I'((gl'

1O() - 123

countrics (Brady, Dansky, Sonne& Saladin, 199B), However, in the lig-ht or recent studies, which also sug-W'st that the illlak(~orkhat is related to increased ag-g-n'ssive behaviours (Balljaw, Micz(·k& Schmidt,200h), wc may cxpcct that thc fi'cquent khat intake might also lead to more aggressive behaviours alllong this I!:roup (Beckham, h'ldman, Kirhy, Hertzherl!: & Moore, 1997), Thus, war rdated trauma and coping with it by usiug drugs can, on the one hand, he a starting point lilr the development or ot her severe psychiao'ic disorders, like drug- de- pendency or drug-illdueed psydlot ic disorders (Chilcoat & Breslau, IlJ!lH). Oil the ot her hal\{l, il will also probably hc rdated to IwhaviOlll'al pmblellls dlJl'iug the rcillle- gratioll phase, such as low sdl:'disciplilll:, low li'uslTation tolnance with rdated out- bursts or ang-(T, or concenl ['al ion diJIiculties (Mog-api, 20(H), The high pcrn:ntag-e of ITspondents who use mOlT than two hundles^ll per day, and the frequent usc or benzo- diazepines resemble the typical amphet- amille drug abuse pattenl lillllld ill W('St(TII countries where, in ord(T to cut dowlI til(' stimulating dkcts, users take tranquillizers, The experiellce rrom;111electrical ellg-iueer- illg- o'ailling- aetivily by an EC/GrZ DRP pilot project ill Sornalilalld (GIZ, 2(04) ('olllinlls that a lIlunb(T or parlicipams will not hc ahle to lilllow thc course due to these problems, Thus, we strongly suggest that a reintegration programme should consider special preventivc, rchabilitative, psychological and medical assist;uKe tools lilr those' who are alkcted by drug and trauma related problems in order to avoid ITilltegl'ation I;tilures, The experience rrom western coun- tri(:s ('OIllTrning- ('ounsdlillg- and prevelltioll might1)('applicable only to a limited exll'ut as the cultural hackgrounds dilkr sign ili- cantly, Thus, we recommend that a future Somali DDR prol!:ramme should indude

COl\l'olllitanl ITsearch activities with the ailll 10develop, adopl aud evaluall' Irauma and drug rdated llleasun:s,

(;ro71jl,'j: Rl'.lllOfldeflts at risk (!/dl'l'I'!oping chronic TI/('fItlll diJordnJ, In all DDI{ pmgralllmes, beneficiaries pn:senting wilh a disabilily duc to war related illjUl'il's01'dtnlllic 11l('ntal disorders have to 1)(' exp(TI(:d, Usually, a rekrral systelll is f('ComnH'wkd, which will give tlH'm access 10a social s(Tllril y service and, especially lill' older ex-eombalallls, a pension sch,'nH' is inl nldnn:d to S('CU1T their Iivdihood as ollH'r limns Or('Conolllic rcilllc- gral ion inlo civilian socid y mil!:ht not be applicable (Collctta d aI., 19~1(j), HOWnTr, at this time, a n:krral system and public social suviccs are n')\lexistent. ()ur lindings show that ahout;1'1., (:121)ortl1l' n:spondenls have had a psycholo~ical l)I"eak<\own in Ihe pasl that led to the disruption or rllnC- lioning lilr at least 4 weeks. Fifty pUlTnl or them indicated thai IIH'Y expni('I\('ed thcir last lTu:ntal breakdown anlT tI\(" ycar 2000 (I'ang-l' 1¹)74 20m), They did Ill,l rcvcal

hi~lu:rrall:S or W;II' I'daled physical il~iurics

or impainnenls, Howcvcr, they rcported a hig-h 1l';Ulma load, had chewedkhat very rrc- (J1\("nlly in II\(" pn,vions wcck, and cn~aged

in sdl~lTlCdicalionor war n:lalnl Illclllorics by khat IISL The rail' or rcspondellls wit h panlllllid symptoms was mOlT than thn'l"

times higher among these n:spondl'nts Ihan among ot h(Ts", The hig-h I'at<' or p;II'anoia and khat ahuse, which is n'lated to (he dlTcI- 0Pllll'llt or psychotic symptol1ls, is in lillC with onr sludy in IlarglH'isa (Od('\lwald ('\ aI.,200:,), This st udy sllOwed Ihal psychot ic disord(Ts an: highly liT«(ll('nl alnon~ IhI' chronically impain:d ex-combalanls, This g-rollp did nol revcal dilkrcnt cxpedations aboul n~inlcgnLIion comparcd to thc rest of the sampk: 17-1 scIt:l'tnl a grant lill' SJ\,J E and 47 choose the ITtUl'n tolimnal eductlion as their lirst prekrelln:,

liB - - - -

(11)

Allhou~h currently they cannol bc 1'011-

si(l!-Inl disabkd, they Illi~ht Iw al r'isk of

(l!-velopin~SeV(Te llwntal disonkrs in the course of till' diflindl adaptation to civil lili', and SOI1l1' oflhelllllli~hlnot Iw stable('nOlI~h

to p,ITticipall' withoul medical assisl,III('(' in staudanl rcintq~rationtools. Psydliatric ITsI'arch has shown that espccially t hos(' who \WrT alli'cled in the past are al Itig-It risk of devdopiu~psychiatric pmblcllls ill Ih(' rut II n', \)uri ng-I he conll iet, and in iII II n('d iall"

posl war situation, vuhll'rablc individuals mig-ht st ill he ahle to rnnction. HowevlT, during- till' cours(, of reinteg-ration, "nlT Inss or st<Ttus and Ihe dashing of hopes and wishes, as well as !winl?; conrronted wil It

\'\Tryday diflinlllics and resentments in til(' comnlllnities, Iltey mig-ht 1I0t be ahle to deal wit h \I'au III at ic lIIemori('s, and t hel"l'lill'l' may (kvdop deprcssion and enWli{e11101"1'in

sdl~III("(licalion hy drul?; ahuse. In pari icular, the chronie abuse ofkIWI, with its dehilitat- ing bellilvioural dkcts (Odenwald, 2(07),

lIIi~ht const it utI' a di lIiTl'IIlT to ot hIT post- cOllflict count ries, ,litItou~hIhe mechanisms arc not wdl UIHl!-rslood. Somc time alter their delllohilizatiou Ihey may still devdop a ehmnic mental condit ion.

The nUllllwr (:>'X.) we lillllld in this study is suhstanl ially lown than the IIi'X. or ('X- comhatants with ehmnic mental disoullTS who Wl'lT ineapable of participalin~ in inCOIIII'~enITatinl?; aetivities lin year's, which WI' had lilllnd in OUl' previous a.s.sc.ssment in SOHlaliland (Odenwald et aI., 2()O.'l). This dislTcpallcy is in line wit h what one could I'XplTI lill' a varict y orreasons. In our Somali- land sludy, we used a household survey to identify ex-col1lhalanls, a way ofsamplin~,

which includes t hose who dropped out of service Iwcausl' of mental problems, Funh n - mOlT, we lIIi~hl nol have detected all vul- nerahlc' individuals in this assessHlcnt, and it is prohably impossihle to idenl iry all of

,tlidlftd Otfnlttltlltf'"~al.

them. \Vlll'n, thl·ir Hlunlwr is as larw, as in Somali land, it would redulT Ihe rct urns of cklllohilizal ion substantially. Consequent Iy,

" \)[)R pro~rammeshould enl?;a~ein pre- vt'nl ivc mcasures, such as educal i(m 011

psychological problems and direcliOlls on where to lind assist'III(T. As an investment in developmental assistance,

,I

prog-ralllnl(' should also initiate a li,llow-up and support structure, like a governmental dt'par'IHlenl or veterans' all;lirs or health dcpartment within" \Tterans asso('ialion, whcre they can access assislalllT and treatnwnt. In

Ihis respet'! also, concomitant lcmg-it udinal n'sl'arell is highly rccommended. \Ve wonld also r('commend that a rUtUrT \)[)R pro- gralunw be linked to broader devdopnwnlal activities, such as the reCllllst ruct ion of nwdical scrviccs in thc country.

Discussion and recommendations

We have repol'\ed SOllll' orthe lindings rdated to expectatiolls alld psychological stress ,unong- participants in an eventual ruture SOHlali DDR pm~ramme.These lindillgs highlighl special considerations that should 1)(' givento cl'l'taill~roups.Among them, a g-roup or oldl,[, and kmale respondellts with ulln:alistically high expectations ahout a DDRpro~ramme,especially rdall'd t.o mon- etary grants. \Ve sec the danglT that they might not lind it easy10partieipate in other standard reilltegralion modules, and that t hey may kel easily rl'llSll'al('(1 in Ihe course of 1)IHCSecondly, a group of young respondents, esplTially ill the south of Somalia, want to COllt inne t.heir' lill'mal education in t he conI'S!' of rcintel?;ration into civilian socil·t.y hili who display high levels or war n:latl'd trauma and ahuse or drug-s illelud-

in~ khat. They arc at risk or developing behavioural problems in the eonrse of rei me- gration, such as low lrnstrat.ion tolerancc

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(:!wflfll,!!,e,l./ilToli~tuTf,eilltegratioll f1WgTIIIIIIIII' ill SI/IIII/ha: (lII{mllll'I'

(l

all a,\,Ie,I,iIlI/'II{Oil drug"(,11,1('.

!1,iwlll/logi,.,,1 dil'l,,',\,1({lui1",-11'1'('/1('(',1'/;" IJ'ill!l:~m{io/l a,Hi.,!lIII,.I', {"{(,(I'I'II{io/l :fOOl. J;>111111/','I•.i'vi//lllll'r1.{'I,gl' lOY - I:!.'J

and aggression, low discipline and addietivl' Ill'haviours, which all kad to increased risk or reintegration hlilllre. I.astly, a numher or

helldieiaril~sarc al risk orden'loping severe psycholol!;ical distllrhaJl('('s in Ill(' course or

n~integ-raliollilUo ei\,il soeidy, l'specially as some or Ihem have already experil'lllTd olle

01'more episodes orpsycholog'icall In'akdl IWII in Ihe pas!.

\Vit h ITSPlTI 10 ex-comhatants who arc dis- ahled due 10 physical handicap or ehrollic psychological prohlems, filnions might IISI' a DDRpmgramme 10 g-et rid or the re~pon

sihility fiJI' them. Possibly Ihis g-roup will nol he eapahle or partjcipatillg- in standard

H~integ-I'ationtools, or may nol he able 10 assume meaning-ful mks in civil sociel y.

Ilowever, the exdll~ivc lil('uS on n'J(-rral systems 10 puhlic health, social wdElre and pension schemes, as rntlized iu OtiUT DDI{

programnws, needs 10 he avoidl~dli'om tl)(' point or view or susl;linahil il y due to limited g-O\'ITnml'1H hlldgels. Inslead, assistance (0

their next or kin illig-hI he an alternali\'e way to secure Iheir livelihood especially in Ihe Somali~oeietyin which Ihe eXlended liunily traditionally takes over the duty or caring- fill' weaker bmily 1I)(,lIlhcrs, The lilr- mer EC runded pilot J)RP in Somaliland had started to consider tI)(,~I~ dilllellsions and has already piloted ~ome llioduics to ofliT a val'iety ortraining-~and 1'llllllSellillg-

serviee~ ^tonlH'taklTsorex-comhatant~with chronic disahility who, in turn, were 1'0111- mitted to caring liJr them ((;'IZ, 20(H).

Our ~tudy has some limitaliom and the interpretation orsingle results must he d01l1 wilh caul ion, espl'eially as we ad within a hig-hly sensilive lield (Gmsse-Kettkr, 20(11), The sdf~n~portdata on dnlg COlISUlllptioll and psycholog-ical ~ymptoms is prohahly hiased throng-h a tendency 10 InllltT H'port, as our previous cxpniences in SOlllalilalld ( >Cknwald et at., sllhmit ted) dearly showed.

I'ill

On the olillT hand, eslil1lalion~ahout drug- USl' in mi lit ia/military units mig'hlll(' alkdl'll hy over raling-, as shown in westnn setting-s, or hy II^IIIliT I"('porling- due to relig-ious norms, de. The asseSSIIIl'II1 or I'Xpl'l.'lat ions towa rds reillleg-ratioll assistance prO\"ilkd hya rutun'I)DJ{prog-ramnll" is also probably inlhll'lll'l'd hy the hig'h allradivnll'ss or 1I10nl'tary_upport, so that other less altl'ae- tivc' bill ^1I10lT real ist ic tools, a re not l'lJll-

sidercd, Althoui{h we trained illlerviewns to l'xplain clearly that participanl~or Ihe stlldy will not havc allY advalltag-e ill a ruture DDR pmg-I'alnllll',WI'mig-ht still haw inad- vertently I'aisn\ I'XplTtat ions alld inlhll'lll'l'd responscs. In g'eneral, Ihe aSSl'SSllll'nl or psychological variahks in Ihis eOllll'xl is anything- bllt a Iriviallllldniakillg-. hlrlhlT-

IlHlIT, hccause or the infimllalioll policy or

eollaborating' bdions WI' do 1I0t kllow till' adual numher or armed personnel ill till' included IIllils. Howevn, dill' to l he 1:let that all unit 1lI1'IlI1wI'S wne ordned 10 ~el' our illtlTviewlTs, and Ihe low rate or breaking up, dill' 10 lalXl' IIIIInlwI'S and theinrlu~ion

or all I:uctiolls bUI onc, as wl'lI as (he hig-h motivation to pal'\icipale in the assessment, we argllel hat wl'lIl;lIlagrd 10 aehil'Vl' a repre- sl·nlalive salllph', This is lill,tlll'r slrellg-th- ened by 11ll" sllbslalll ial va I,iat ion WI' have ill our dala~howillgIhat OUI' salllple iSIl't ,I hig-hly sekded hOIHOg'I·IH"IHIS subg-rollp.

I.astly, due to securil y reasons and ot hn Irsl ril't ions, it was not po~sibk10 sU(lIT\'ise alld sllppOl'1 illt(Tviewns on a daily basis dllrilli{ 11ll' aSSl'SSIl1I'II1. '1b, the bd Ihat s('vnal hUIIl!rel! respolllknts admitled thai akohol illiakl' WOllld exist ill their locality illdieatl's Ihc alltlwnt icit YortlwIT~ponses,

Fllture stlldies lIenlto assess, ill parallel, the v,didit y orallY kiwI ordala gat IWlrd hy using- all ohjective eritnion (slleh as IIrille drug- s(Tceningorhy validatioll inll'r\"invs) atleasl ill a suhsampk or respondellts. COllt rolled

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101lg-itlldillal ~llIdic~ thc ollly way 10 i(klltiry pn'did(JI'~ and ri~k f;Ktm~ I<l!'

~lIl'IT~~fiti reillleg-rat iOIl 011 Ihe lIIicro level arcc~pcciallyIleeded.

Acknowledgement

TIll' alllhOl'~ wOllld likc' to expn'~~ Ilwil appnTiatiollloD.,. Patiellcc I.alllaro ()lIylll, ljllivIT~ily orMbarara, Ug-alld,., 1<11'111'1hdp

III n'VI~IIlg-Ihc artide alld to l:Il"(i'r1illdl'll, Lllivcl~ily or Bc II Ill, (;lTlllaIlY, alld Ihc 11I1/'rI'/'lIlillllnlilorialboard who both pmvidcd lI~diti (,Ollln]('llt~011 _~pel'iIiI' i~~IIC~, ~lrlld 1I1'('

and~tyle orlhi~all ide,

I III SOIlIalia, 1lI0SI p..opl.. III ,w..eI or 11I1'lIlal Iwall h ""TiITS elo Ilot ha\'c' a..." 10 Ih..III ,Th..

pllhli.. Iwall h sl'('(or ill SOIlIalia is IIlldl'f~lalIi-eI

,",,1 poorly "quipped, altholl~hpharllla.l'i..s sdl I'syd "'I'I "I rllla ..ologieaIdrll~,s, 1101 all elru.'.:s are a\'ai"'h'" alld Ihc' slll'l'ly ,"il';hl Ill' illl .. rrupkel,

\Vt'SIl'f1l trained pSyThi,lIrisls ill privall' pradice w(lrk ill (Itt' hi~g(Tcities. N'r a\,t,'r(\~(l SOlllalis, this IITat11le1l1 is IIl"dl(JI'(lahk, Ihough. IlIsl ..ael, patiellts allel L,n'lak,'rs tllrll to traelitiollal h..akrs alld slwiks (ls);,lIIi.. lw,dl'fsj ill t Il<'ir ..Olllllllillil i..s Ii,I' hdp allel 'lSsisl'"""', IloWI'\''''', «II' Ihis a,ssisl- alln' 1;lIl1ili,'s ,dso h'l\" 10 pay. ()liclI ..ar.. I;,1c'I's an'Ic-nalo,w wil hI h..irpsycholo~i..all)' elisllid It'eI I:lll1ily Iw,"lll'rs. III ore"'r 10 a\'oiel harlllio olh,'r"

I:llllili,'s oli ..11 .-haill-up l'alic'IIIS 10 a\oiel ^COIll- Ilt'lIsalioll paYlllellls to Iho,,' ha.nIl...1.

~ Till' sllrn'v was supporl... 1hytill'Disarlllalll"111 allel I klll"biliz,"ioll (:Clllllllil1<"I' ( :OlllllliuIT :2) 01'1111' SOlllali :"Jaliollal RCTclIU'ilia,1 iOIl ( :ollkrelln' illl\lhaghati, :\Iairohi,

'; III Ih.. Ilorlh "rSolllalia, SCIIII,dilalld all<lPulll- lallel "Tn' s.. k('(,'d as hotl, r..giolls han' a slroll,!,;

stal,·-lik,' powc'r ill II,,· lilrlll or regiollal ad,"illis- traliolls. III cTlllral SOIl,alia, Hirall was chos,,"

alld ill sOllllwrll Somalia, Bay/Bakool,Mo~adishll

alld K i,,"avo, :Vlogadi,hll was di\,iel..eI illio Iwo paris a....orelillg to Ihe"~r(,(,11lill.." whi.. h divid..s Ih.. loWlllll'lw'TIl th(' lIIaill I:wliollS,

i\!i,-{wd Orl/'""",lrI/'IIlI.

, III SOlllalilaml, du(' 10 Ill('i1I\'ok..llwlIl iII ,,,Ii lIi-r- ('111 project, a cellsus-lik.. ass..ssllwlIl was illll·lllh-d.

Thus,W" syslC'lllali..ally as,,·s,,·eI alllllilitary ullits Ihal wc ... illeli..alnl hy 1111'~O\'enlllJ('lIll1rllw aulll- 1I0ll'OllS n'l';ioll SOlllaliland (north-west Somalia),

, (; .... m"l1 ''''l'Imi..al (:ooperalioll (Iklllsd....

(;",,·lIsl'llan l'iir'liTllllisdw ZlisallII '1('1I"r1)('il ).

" Th.. n'adl'r is advisl'd lhal 1I0t all I'TSJ) symp- loms li.,lllli ran1)('alt,-jhlll ... 1 10 Ir"um;o,li/."lion dllrillg war. \Vl' ha\'e 10 ('),,)(',-( 1hat tI.... n· is a 'L1hstanlial pn'-w,"' hasdill" or trallma rl'lall'd psydl< .1,>~i..,d pmhl..,lIs,

7 ;\io'" lhal our m"",slln' or pPTSJ) Ulllk,-('sli- II \;, It·s III(' 1I'll.. pn'\'aklll'l' or PTSI>.

H B;os..,1 011 r"slllts ora K,'nyan siudy (Dhadph;o'"

& Om"lo, 1~)IlIl)^WI' ddill(' Ih .. "'" or mol'.. Ihan Iwo hlllldks"rkhat per day O\'lT a plTiod 01'''1 I.."sl ollc' week as dallgerous.

'. Noll'thal wl'assl'ss('cIonly paralloiellhillkillg,,, small part ..

r

till' possible SYlllplolll I'all~"or psy-

"hotic pali..lIls, TlolT('liln\ WI' 1I1l(1l'l'l'stimated the tnl('pn~v"kll'Tor psychot ic symptoms.

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0/

/lrmslaru:., Gemwr!y, wluTe he is a llurallist and researdur (!/flT/ outlHitienl clinicjilr rr:/ilW'f.\

awl I'l'search ward .filr Sdli:::'0lihrenia. /n tht'

{(mr,lf 0/ his doctoratt' sludies. Ill' has r!om'

fJ,lmsillf .Iirldwork in lhe ,)'omalia Ili/Ol /)/)R Im~!',rammf. email: midulf'l.odmwald (0;uni -konstfm,:.fh

Harolr/ /linke!, Ph/) was tht' hfflr! (!/GT?-iS /)11./'in I!argeisa, ....'omali/arul. amIturrfllt~y works .filY Ihf World UrJ7/k\ Al11lti-COllTllr.y /)mwbili.:alion and Reintegration Programnw ( AI/)RP) oFihe Grealn Grffll Lakes Rf,gif/YI in A/riw, Goma, /)mwcmlir: Rell11hli((!lC(lTlgo.

/,;!i\fl!Jdh SdWllff. Al.-1,AlP!! works with lhf' inlemalional N(;O /lillo. She_curTenl~y wonli- nutes till' atlil,itit's in northern Sri i,fl7lka and {![',anda wilh amain fotus on the Imilding -Illi q/alulllwri ir!/ra.l'lructurfjilr If'ar-lmumali,:ed dlildrm amllht'irjinnilin.