Tracks in the Bayuda desert. The project 'Wadi Abu Dom Itinerary' (W.A.D.I.)

Angelika Lohwasser

Tracks in the Bayuda desert. The project 'Wadi Abu Dom Itinerary' (W.A.D.I.)

Abstract

From the archaeological point of view, the Bayuda desert is an u n k n o w n part of the northern Sudan. The pro­

ject 'Wadi A b u D o m Itinerary' focuses on the investigation of the so­called 'King's Road' b e t w e e n the t w o capitals of the k i n g d o m of Kush, Meroe a n d N a p a t a . The journey b e t w e e n these t w o centres is repeatedly m e n t i o n e d in N a p a t a n royal texts, and the road is considered to be the major trade route t h r o u g h the Bayuda as well. H a v i n g n o w the survey data of altogether 70 km2along the road, w e b e g a n to recognise a pattern in site distribution. The p e r m a n e n t a n d seasonal settlement sites are concentrated at the w a d i banks. H e r e the four k n o w n stone structures, namely U m m R u w e i m I and II, Q u w e i b a n d U m m Khafour, are situated. Al­

t h o u g h they used to be interpreted as caravansaries, their function is as yet u n k n o w n . N e a r the w a d i b a n k s w e f o u n d remains of h u t s a n d sites which w e w o u l d explain as c a m p sites of n o m a d s . In the hinterland, the archaeologically discernible h u m a n activity is restricted to travelling: w e f o u n d tethering stones at camel a n d d o n k e y tracks, sometimes with small fireplaces nearby. In the overall pattern w e can very clearly distinguish the 'land for settling' f r o m the 'land for crossing'.

K e y w o r d s : archaeological survey, 'King's Road', shortcut, t r a d e route, stone structure, n o r t h e r n Sudan, Kush, N a p a t a n period, Meroitic period

1. In search of the'King's Road'

The region w i t h i n the large b e n d of the river Nile in n o r t h e r n S u d a n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y b e t w e e n the m o d e r n cities of O m d u r m a n a n d Korti, is called Bayuda. This w i d e desert is f o r m e d of rocky areas, sandy plateaus, a n d s o m e wadis which lead the sea­

sonal rainfalls into the river Nile. The most p r o m i ­ nent w a d i s in the Bayuda are the Wadi M u q q a d a m a n d the Wadi A b u D o m [Fig. 1].

The focus of the W.A.D.I. ('Wadi A b u D o m Itin­

erary') project, which w a s inaugurated in 2009, is to explore the Wadi Abu D o m as part of the route be­

t w e e n M e r o e a n d N a p a t a , the t w o capitals of the k i n g d o m of Kush. Scholars p h a s e the history of the k i n g d o m of Kush in the N a p a t a n (9th ­ 4th century BC) a n d the Meroitic (4th century BC ­ 4th century AD) periods. The city of Meroe, n o r t h of the 6th

Cataract, w a s the administrative h e a d q u a r t e r s with the royal residence and, in the Meroitic period, with the royal cemeteries. N a p a t a , in the north at Jebel Barkal, is the sacred centre with the temples of the m a i n gods. Situated close by are the royal cemeter­

ies at El Kurru a n d Nuri, w h i c h w e r e u s e d d u r i n g the N a p a t a n period. The designated Kushite king h a d to travel f r o m his palace in Meroe to N a p a t a to receive the c r o w n f r o m A m u n in the great A m u n t e m p l e (B 500) at Jebel Barkal. The trip f r o m Meroe to N a p a t a w a s r e c o r d e d r e p e a t e d l y o n N a p a t a n royal stelae, b u t not described in detail.1 Only the stela of N a s t a s e n gives t w o place n a m e s on the

1 'Dream stela' of Tanutamun, 1. 6 (Breyer 2003: 101; 235); in­

scription of Irikeamanote in Kawa IX, 1. 4f. (Macadam 1949: pi.

22); stela of Nastasen, 1. 4 ­ 8 (Peust 1999: 61f.).

Originalveröffentlichung in: Frank Förster und Heiko Riemer (Hg.), Desert Road Archaeology in Ancient Egypt and Beyond (Africa Parehistorica 27), Köln 2013, S. 425-435

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Jebel Barkal Nun El Usheir

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Zuma Ghazali Umm Khafour

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Beill

100 km _{• Kadero}

Omdurman

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Fig. 1 M a p of t h e B a y u d a , n o r t h e r n S u d a n .

route: it m e n t i o n s isd-rst as well as t-kc, but both are n o t yet identified. Since the w a t e r m o u t h of the Wadi A b u D o m is exactly opposite Jebel Barkal a n d therefore also opposite the supposed location of Na- pata, it is generally a s s u m e d that the 'King's Road' r u n s in this w a d i (cf. Chittick 1955: 86; Welsby 1996:

50). M o r e o v e r , a n easy water s u p p l y , as well as a r o u t e w h i c h cannot be missed, a r g u e s for the Wadi A b u D o m as the location of the 'King's Road'.

Therefore, o n e aim of the project, besides the m a p­ p i n g of ancient features, w a s to identify structures connected w i t h this so­called ' K i n g ' s Road'. We

h o p e d to find installations like caravansaries, wells, storage buildings, sacral installations a n d control posts as well as inscriptions by m e m b e r s of the es­

cort w h i c h s h o u l d indicate a r o u t e for t r a d e and royal travel.

U p to now, the s u r v e y a l o n g the b a n k s of the Wadi Abu D o m itself covers a total of about 20 km w a d i ­ u p w a r d s . We also prospected the areas about 2 ­ 4 k m n o r t h a n d south of the wadi, d e p e n d i n g on their topographical condition. Moreover, w e have chosen several side khors (small wadis) for the com­

parison with the m a i n wadi, a n d surveyed each of

Fig. 2 The landscape in the Wadi Abu D o m (© W.A.D.I. Project).

t h e m at b o t h b a n k s u p to the c a t c h m e n t area of these khors.

We identified n u m e r o u s sites, mostly very small ones like single burials or shelters, etc. Their time range stretches f r o m the Paleolithic to the Medieval period. We failed to find alamat (landmarks; cairns as route markers), which should lead the w a y in the desert. But being in the Wadi Abu D o m for the first time in 2009, w e realized that there is n o need for signs, since the w a d i itself is an alam [Fig. 2]. The sometimes flimsy, s o m e t i m e s rank green line is not to b e missed. C o n c e r n i n g the w a t e r s u p p l y , we found m a n y wells, several dry a n d full of sand, a n d others recently in use with plenty of water [Fig. 3].

But since the s u b s u r f a c e flow in the w a d i is at a quite high level, it is easy to dig a well, even for the recent farmers. O n e does not need a central a d m i n­ istration of labour a n d resources like a king with the authority to plan the construction a n d to control the

wells as at the o u t p o s t s in the eastern or w e s t e r n desert. Within those areas, wells are d e f e n d e d by walls a n d most likely controlled b y soldiers.2The Bayuda, however, m a y be a desert in general, b u t the Wadi A b u D o m is a green oasis w h e r e the lo­

gistics for travelling ­ or at least to survive a journey

­ are easy to m a i n t a i n a n d n o t necessarily con­

trolled b y a state authority.

After a b o u t 70 km2 of detailed survey, w e failed to find clear evidence of any remains of the Kushite k i n g d o m . N e i t h e r sacral installations n o r inscrip­

tions or pictures connected with the Kushite culture w e r e d o c u m e n t e d . We did not find a single sherd of Meroitic fine w a r e or any other sign of elitist ma­

terial culture! T h u s w e c o n c l u d e that the ' K i n g ' s

2 Like at Gala Abu A h m e d in Wadi H o w a r (cf. Jesse & Kuper 2006) or at the hydreuma in Wadi Kalalat (cf. Sidebotham 2003).

Fig. 3 A well in the wadi, d u g by n o m a d s (© W.A.D.I. Project).

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Fig. 4 A typical path with broken pottery left by travellers (© W.A.D.I. Project).

R o a d ' did not lead t h r o u g h the Wadi A b u Dom.

Since the climate at least in the Meroitic phase was m o r e h u m i d t h a n today, w e can s u g g e s t that the Kushites u s e d a r o u t e m o r e to the s o u t h (pers.

c o m m . Dorian Fuller). This fits with the fortress of Fura Wells as well as w i t h s o m e Meroitic burials near the s o u t h e r n transit t h r o u g h the B a y u d a (cf.

C r a w f o r d 1953; Chittick 1955). O n the other hand, the Wadi A b u D o m is a n d w a s an easy w a y to cross the Bayuda. A l t h o u g h it m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n the 'King's Road', the Wadi A b u D o m m a y well have been a trading route, as it is today.

2. 'Land for settling' and 'land for crossing'

A l r e a d y while p r o s p e c t i n g by m e a n s of Google Earth, w e recognised significant tracks along the b a n k s of the wadi. Doing the groundcheck, we re­

alised that at least s o m e of these p a t h s seem to have been in use since a long time ago [Fig. 4]. N e a r the p a t h w a y s , w e f o u n d s o m e e x a m p l e s of rock art [Fig. 5]. This type of feature is in general quite rare w i t h i n o u r concession area (cf. Karberg 2009;

Gabriel & Karberg 2011: 94­97). A n o t h e r category of f i n d s closely associated with the p a t h s are teth­

ering stones to tie u p valuable cattle or camels

[Fig. 6]. A n d , most interestingly, w e f o u n d signifi­

cant concentrations of pottery of different periods in the close vicinity of the paths. It w a s really inter­

esting to find K e r m a as well as post­Meroitic a n d m e d i e v a l s h e r d s at these spots. A n d , n o t surpris­

ingly, if the people of today walk or ride, they use the s a m e tracks, w h i c h are already d u g deeply into the g r o u n d . O u r conclusion w a s that the historical tracks w h i c h w e r e u s e d since a long time ago are also suitable for the people of today, t h u s the traffic a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n patterns are quite c o m p a r a b l e over the centuries.

Today, the Wadi A b u D o m is inhabited by s o m e f a r m e r s w h o cultivate fields with tomatoes, cucum­

bers, a n d onions, as well as s o m e date palms. These

f a r m e r s live in h u t s of m u d brick, m a d e o u t of local m u d f r o m the wadi. Beside that sedentary p o p u l a ­ tion, there is a second g r o u p of people living in the B a y u d a a n d u s i n g the Wadi A b u D o m . These are n o m a d s , m i g r a t i n g w i t h their h e r d s of s h e e p a n d camels t h r o u g h the desert a n d b u i l d i n g rakubas (reed huts) for dwelling w h e n they stop for a while.

These t w o g r o u p s of people using the region of the Wadi A b u D o m are present in the archaeologi­

cal record, too. On the one hand, w e f o u n d the bases or f o u n d a t i o n walls of small h u t s [Fig. 7]. These are mostly situated on a higher level, w h e r e the water could not reach t h e m even if the flood of the w a d i w a s extreme. O n the other h a n d , we f o u n d traces of several campsites, w h e r e people stopped for a short

20 cm

Fig. 6 Tethering stones (© W.A.D.I. Project).

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Fig. 7 Remains of ancient huts (© W.A.D.I. Project).

Fig. 8 An ancient campsite (© W.A.D.I. Project).

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time a n d left fireplaces, stones to fasten reed h u t s or tents, a n d scattered pottery [Fig. 8].3 A c o m p a­ rable c a m p s i t e w a s already excavated at the 4th cataract (Wolf & N o w o t n i c k 2005: 25­30). The visi­

3 Of course the litter of the n o m a d s today does not consist of pottery but parts of the recent material culture, like glass, bro­

ken plastic and shoes.

ble r e m a i n s at the surface coincide, a n d although w e d i d n o t excavate a c a m p s i t e in the Wadi Abu D o m u p to now, w e can suggest a similar situation there.

As an analogy, w e can conclude that the usage of the land has not differed very m u c h from the past to the present. The t w o g r o u p s of people inhabiting the w a d i with different lifestyles interact, but live

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A campsite

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Fig. 9 Distribution of three site categories along the Wadi Abu Dom (© W.A.D.I. Project).

separated f r o m each other. But w e have to bear in m i n d that w e d o not k n o w the chronological situa­

tion of these different site categories (huts a n d campsites). Since w e did not m a k e any excavations u p to now, w e d o not h a v e precise datings for the different sites. At the r e m a i n s of h u t s there are n o finds u p to now. At the campsites, the pottery ranges f r o m the 1st m i l l e n n i u m BC to the 1st mil­

l e n n i u m AD, or even u p to post­medieval times.

Since w e cannot b e sure that h u t s a n d campsites were contemporary, w e can suggest a parallel use of the Wadi A b u D o m by f a r m e r s a n d n o m a d s only in a n a l o g y to the recent situation. O n the other hand, both categories might be the r e m a i n s of the s a m e p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p , w h o h a d to a d a p t their

w a y of living to changing conditions. Looking at the spatial distribution of the site categories ' h u t re­

m a i n s ' , ' c a m p s i t e ' a n d ' p a t h s ' (with installations like fireplaces, tethering stones, etc.), w e can recog­

nise that campsites are situated mostly on the ter­

races at the banks, preferably at the junction of side khors, w h e r e there is m o r e grazing area, a n d in the vicinity of the large ruins [Fig. 9]. The h u t s are near the banks, b u t always o n a higher level. In the hin­

terland, far a w a y f r o m the w a d i or side khors, most traces of h u m a n activity w e f o u n d w e r e fireplaces a n d tethering stones, r e p r e s e n t i n g the r e m a i n s of overnight­stops. Moreover, a path network overlays the rocky desert, leading f r o m the Wadi A b u D o m to the n o r t h and south, a n d presenting shortcuts be­

Nuri

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Sanam

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Umm Ruweiml

Ghazali

Umm Ruweim 2

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Fig. 10 The location of the stone build­

ings in the Wadi Abu D o m (drawing:

D. Eigner).

t w e e n side khors. Thus, in the overall pattern w e can quite clearly distinguish the 'land for settling' f r o m the 'land for crossing'.

3. The stone buildings in the Wadi Abu Dom

H.N. Chittick a n d P.L. Shinnie m a d e an exploration j o u r n e y in 1951 t h r o u g h the Wadi A b u D o m a n d followed the track through the Bayuda u p to Meroe.

They visited the ruins of U m m R u w e i m , Q u w e i b , a n d U m m K h a f o u r , a n d m a d e short descriptions a n d sketch p l a n s of the visible r e m a i n s (Chittick 1955: 88-90). They interpreted the enclosures on the one h a n d as caravansaries, b u t stated on the other h a n d that the four ruins are too close to each other to h a v e served as overnight-stops [Fig. 10].

Since these ruins were not d o c u m e n t e d in an ad­

equate way, w e decided to generate an architectural subproject to p r o d u c e a m e a s u r e d plan a n d a de­

scription of the visible remains (Eigner & Karberg 2011). D u r i n g the project, w e w e r e not able to ex­

cavate larger trenches, b u t u n d e r t o o k only removal of s a n d for clearance of details a n d s o m e small s o n d a g e s to detect the absolute elevation of the walls. For the f u t u r e , w e plan to excavate these structures in s o m e parts.

These f o u r buildings m a y h a v e been connected w i t h trade, as Chittick suggested. To o u r mind, the function of all of t h e m is not settled yet. In the fol­

lowing I will p r e s e n t a very short description and a conclusion a b o u t their possible function(s).

U m m R u w e i m I consists of t w o s q u a r e s w i t h e l o n g a t e d r o o m s a n d a central b u i l d i n g [Figs. 11;

12]. The outer enclosure has four entrances; three of t h e m w e r e blocked a n d only the m a i n entrance in the east gives access to the structure. There are stair­

cases in each corner of the outer enclosure, b u t also staircases or r a m p s in three corners of the inner en­

closure. In the centre of the inner enclosure a build­

ing is situated. It is exactly square, but at the eastern side a staircase a n d a small r o o m is attached to it­

We w a n t to stress that the central building is clearly orientated differently as c o m p a r e d to the enclo­

sures. Within the courtyard of the central building/

there is a cuboid built of stones. This massive plat­

form is difficult to interpret; it m a y be a throne or an altar.

Most rooms of the inner enclosure were filled u p intentionally at a later phase. It seems that the aim had been to construct s o m e kind of elevated terrace.

This could have involved a change in the function of the structure.

In every part of the building there are small win­

d o w s . They p r o v i d e ventilation a n d s o m e light. As these o p e n i n g s are quite irregular in their spacing a n d in s o m e parts quite rare, w e can exclude holes for b e a m s of scaffolding. Moreover, these openings are not o m i s s i o n s of stones in the wall b u t inten­

tionally built with small architraves.

T h e r u i n of Q u w e i b , a b o u t 6 k m east of U m m R u w e i m , is a rectangular enclosure consisting of 16 elongated r o o m s a r o u n d a free courtyard. The only entrance to the enclosure is located on the east side­

In the courtyard, there is a platform situated in the m i d d l e of the w e s t e r n wall. As far as w e can see w i t h o u t f u r t h e r excavations, the platform is built of massive stones.

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Fig. 11 The ruin of Umm Ruweim I (kite-photo by H. Paner).

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Fig. 12 Site plan of the ruin of Umm Ruweim I (by D. Eigner).

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There are t w o m o r e stone structures which are quite similar to each other, o n e of t h e m very close to U m m R u w e i m I. This hosh (enclosure) is called U m m R u w e i m II. The other, m o r e to the southeast, is called U m m Khafour. O n the surface today, w e can recognise square enclosures with t w o entrances east a n d w e s t each, b u t with, at first sight, e m p t y c o u r t y a r d s . In b o t h cases the m a g n e t o m e t e r a n d g r o u n d penetrating radar corrected this impression:

they revealed r e m a i n s of m u d brick architecture. A large r e c t a n g u l a r s t r u c t u r e i n c l u d i n g t w o r o u n d h u t s w a s built w i t h i n the c o u r t y a r d of U m m R u w e i m II. A l t h o u g h the geophysical results in U m m K h a f o u r are less clear, w e can suggest a simi­

lar installation.

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these r u i n s is far f r o m clear. It s e e m s that a f u n e r a r y function can b e ex­

cluded, since there is n o burial g r o u n d in the vicin­

ity except s o m e box graves. Also to be excluded is a military function, since there is no evidence for for­

tification or d e f e n s e elements. O n the contrary, there is a d i s a d v a n t a g e in the topographical situa­

tion, since the ruins are located close to hills w h i c h can hide e n e m i e s easily a n d allow them a covered a d v a n c e to positions quite close to the buildings or the use of r a n g e d w e a p o n s f r o m elevated terrain.

A n o t h e r possibility is an e c o n o m i c function, b u t there are neither big storerooms like in the treasury in S a n a m (Griffith 1922: 116­124), n o r a n a d e q u a t e access: N o larger animal can enter the enclosures because of the n a r r o w L­shaped entrance. Of course it is possible that only p e o p l e e n t e r e d the enclo­

sures, b u t even then the few a n d n a r r o w r o o m s are not suitable for a storage building.

W h a t a b o u t a residential function? N o n e of the structures looks like a palace, so far as w e can com­

p a r e t h e m w i t h Egyptian a n d Kushite e x a m p l e s . There are s o m e elements which we k n o w f r o m the Meroitic architecture, like elevated terraces a n d r a m p s , b u t the complex as a w h o l e does not look Meroitic. In fact, w e m a y have to d o with the archi­

tectural manifestation of another culture of some in­

d e p e n d e n c e ; b u t w e will h a v e to wait for the exca­

vations to get a n y f u r t h e r insight. The s a m e is true for the interpretation of the structures as religious complexes. The structures d o not look like temples, although there are s o m e elements which are k n o w n f r o m the h e a r t l a n d of Meroe, for e x a m p l e the so­

called sun temple in Meroe itself (Hinkel, ed., 2001).

There are several indications that at least U m m

R u w e i m I h a d a ritual function ­ w h e t h e r in con­

nection with a natural or s u p e r n a t u r a l authority is difficult to say. The s a m e m a y be true for Quweib, w h e r e the platform a n d the eastern entrance seem to h a v e a ritual connotation. Also the different lev­

els of the w i n d o w s could hint at this interpretation.

O n e of the p r o b l e m s concerning the interpreta­

tion is that u p to n o w w e d o not even k n o w if these ruins are all c o n t e m p o r a r y or differ chronologically f r o m each other. If they are contemporary, each s t r u c t u r e m a y h a v e s e r v e d d i f f e r e n t functions. If they are successive, they all could h a v e served the s a m e function, b u t built by different rulers or chiefs.

4. Conclusion

We c a n n o t confirm the s u g g e s t i o n that the stone b u i l d i n g s in the Wadi A b u D o m served as cara­

vansaries or as storage b u i l d i n g s for t r a d e goods.

Of course f u t u r e excavations m i g h t change this im­

pression, b u t at this stage w e d o not h a v e any clear evidence concerning organized transport systems.

W h a t w e d o h a v e are the m a n y traces of small­scale traffic ­ the tracks, tethering stones, fireplaces, etc.

Long­distance travelling as well as j o u r n e y s be­

t w e e n h a m l e t s took place in the past as it does today. The Wadi A b u D o m served a n d continues to serve as a guideline t h r o u g h the western Bayuda.

Acknowledgements

The preliminary campaign of the survey project w a s funded by the Gerda-Henkel-Stiftung, the f o l l o w i n g c a m p a i g n s by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Founda­

tion). The reports of each season are published in the periodical 'Der antike Sudan', annually from vol. 20 (2009) onwards. For the topic of land use in the Wadi Abu Dom, see especially the re­

ports Lohwasser 2010; 2011. The architectural documentation of U m m Ruweim I was financed by the Federal Foreign Office, Ger­

many, and the subproject in Q u w e i b , U m m R u w e i m II, an d

U m m Khafour by the Schiff­Giorgini Foundation, United States of America. Moreover, thanks are d u e to Stephen Emmel for cor­

recting my English in this paper.

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