Working Paper
Emergency Air Protection:
A Survey of Smog Alarm Systems
Meinhard Breiling Joseph Alcamo
WP-92-52 August 1992
~~l II ASA
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis o A-2361 Laxenburg o Austria Telephone: +43 2236 715210 o Telex: 079 137 iiasa a o Telefax: +43 2236 71313Emergency Air Protection:
A Survey of Smog Alarm Systems
Meinhard Breiling Joseph Alcamo *
WP-92-52 August 1992
(*)Leader, Project on Toxic Pollution and the European En- vironment 1991.
Working Papers are interim reports on work of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and have received only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute or of its National Member Organizations.
BllASA
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis A-2361 Laxenburg a Austria Telephone: +43 2236 715210 o Telex: 079 137 iiasa a Telefax: + 4 3 2236 71313Contents
Foreword
. . .
vAcknowledgments
. . .
vii1 . Introduction
. . .
1. . .
2.
Elements of a Smog Alarm System 3. . .
3.
Smog Alarm Systems of Austria 5 4 . Smog Alarm Systems of Germany. . .
115
.
Smog Alarm Systems of Italy. . .
196
.
Smog Alarm Systems of Japan. . .
237
.
Smog Alarm Systems of Netherlands. . .
31. . .
8.
Smog Alarm Systems of Norway 35. . .
9.
Smog Alarm Systems of Switzerland 37 10 . Smog Alarm Systems of the United States. . .
41. . .
11 . Findings and Recommendations 49 Information Sources. . .
69Foreword
As Central and Eastern Europe looks to its future, it is faced with a legacy of environmental pollution from its recent past. Three main environmental tasks confront the region: to reduce the burden of pollutants, to revitalize the environment, and to prevent future pollution by implementing "clean technologies." Unfortunately, the funds are not available for taking on all of these huge tasks at once, at least not in an effective way. For this reason it is of utmost importance to set near-term priorities for environmental protection. Faced with a difficult decision, perhaps we must choose the protection of human health as a number one near-term priority. This paper describes one approach to protecting human health from pollutants which can also be accomplished in the coming years; the authors aim to provide an overview of smog alarm systems to experts and citizens in Central and Eastern European cities so that they can consider the option of building such systems in their own cities. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first review of its kind, and it is hoped that it will lead to a closer examination of this practical and effective control strategy.
Acknowledgments
This study was partly funded by Grant Number 158 from the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastem Europe.
Special thanks go to everyone who contributed to the study in the eight selected countries, in particular to: Dr. Danninger, Dr. Hojevsky, Dipl. Ing. Pankratz, Dr. Pillrnm, Doz. Pleschberger, Mag.
Scheicher, Dr. Semmelrock, Dr. Smekal, Dipl. Ing. Begert, Dr. Bruckmm, Dipl. Ing. Enge, Dr.
Hamrnje, Dr. Hohmeyer, Dr.Knetsch, Dr. Kulzner, Dr. Lenschow, Dr. Pfeffer, Dipl. Ing. RCimemm, Dr. Wyzif, Dr. Wunderlich, Dr. Zimmemann, Dr. Calori, Dr. Castrofino, Prof. Finzi, Dr. Gianelle, Dr.
Inaba, Dr. Mizunu, Mr. Nishio, Dr. Nishioka, Mr. Nomoto, Mr. Ozaki, Mr. Shibaike, Ir. Buitekamp, Dr. Bum, Dr. Tveita, Dr. Eggli, Prof. Hanggartner, Dr. Sommer, Dr. Lockee, Mrs. Pearson, and Mrs.
Shelton.
We also want to thank the Kawasaki Pollution Monitoring Center and the Kitakyushu Department for Environmental Conservation. The authors wish to thank B. Liibkert-Alcamo for reviewing the manuscript and H. Pankl for writing the tables.
vii
Chapter 1
Introduction
Although the seriousness of environmental problems in Central and Eastern Europe is widely recognized, there are many factors that are likely to delay their solution for some decades.
These include the high costs of pollution control, the competition between pollution control and economic development for available funds, and the inadequate "environmental infrastructure"
in the region needed to deal with environmental problems (see, e.g., Alcamo, 1992).
At the same time, the threat to public health from severe air pollution (see, e.g., WHO, 1992')~ demands that action be taken as soon as possible to reduce the exposure of the population to dangerous levels of pollutants. With this in mind, an appropriate near-term policy should be "emergency environmental protection," namely, the immediate protection of public health from the greatest and most obvious environmental hazards using readily available measures. Among these measures are smog alarm systems which alert the public to impending or occurring air pollution episodes and, in some cases, specify measures to counter the sources and impacts of these episodes. Although measures such as smog alarm systems only treat the symptoms rather than the cause of the region's environmental problems, they have the advantage of being quick to implement, inexpensive, and, most important of all, effective in protecting public health.
Smog alarm systems can be set up relatively quickly because they do not require very large institutions or investments. Their most expensive component is a necessary air quality monitoring network, but these networks are already being set up in many Eastern European cities for other reasons, for example, to determine the location of areas most severely affected by air pollution, or to validate models used for developing air quality management plans.
Moreover, smog alarm systems have the potential to reduce the exposure of urban populations to high levels of pollutants because the most dangerous levels occur only for short periods of time during especially unfavorable meteorological conditions (about 30 to 35 days or less in a year). For example, data presented in UNEP(1980) indicate that WHO norms for sulfur dioxide are exceeded in Zagreb during 8% of the time in an average year. WHO norms for ambient smoke levels are exceeded in Wroclaw 8% of the time on average and in Warsaw 5% of the time. Table 1.1 lists the WHO general air quality standards.
Alarm systems are targeted to both winter and summer smog. Winter smog usually has to do with high concentrations of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and other industrial pollutants which build-up in the lower layer of the atmosphere over cities and industrial areas when this layer is capped by a temperature inversion. Episodes of winter smog are often local in scale because pollutants emitted from furnaces, industrial processes, and other sources are trapped near their origin by the temperature inversion. Sometimes, however, a winter smog episode can
'WHO (1992). Acute effects on health of smog episodes. European Series No. 43. WHO Regional Office for Europe. Copenhagen.
Table 1.1. WHO general air quality standards in micrograms per cubic meter.
SO, SPM NO, CO 0,
Annual mean 40-60 60-90
24 hours 150
8 hours 10,000 150-200
1 hour 400 30,000 120
30 min 6oc'
15 min 100,000
be continental in scale, as in the case of the January 1985 episode in Europe when sulfur dioxide accumulated in the stagnant atmosphere over Eastern Europe and was then blown westward by moderate winds (Liibkert, 1989).
Summer smog, by comparison, is manifested by high photo-oxidant levels (including nitrogen oxides and ozone) in the lower atmosphere. This is brought on by the build-up of gases from traffic-related emissions in a stagnant atmosphere; these gases are then converted by intense solar radiation into secondary pollutants such as ozone. Summer smog episodes normally cover a wider area than winter smog episodes because (1) the gases from traffic emissions (nitrogen oxides, for example) travel some distance from their source before being converted to photo- oxidant pollutants and (2) traffic emissions
-
the main source of smog-
are much more evenly distributed across the landscape than the industrial emissions that cause summer smog episodes.As far as Europe is concerned, summer smog is more an affliction of the West because of the greater number of vehicles in this region, and winter smog troubles the East more often because of the greater amount of uncontrolled emissions from energy conversion and industry and the lower number of vehicles in this region. Of course, if the number of vehicles without pollution control greatly increases in Central and Eastern Europe, then the frequency of summer smog episodes will also increase there.
AU
in all, smog alarm systems can provide "emergency air protection" for European urban populations from winter and summer smog until the source of this smog is permanently curtailed.The purpose of this paper is to survey selected smog alarm systems around the world and to provide background information to individuals and organizations in Central and Eastern Europe for setting up smog alarm systems in their own cities. Of course, not all Western experience is relevant to Central and Eastern Europe, but we believe much of it is.
The alert systems from 19 different smog areas in 8 different countries are reviewed and summarized in this paper. Information was provided by local experts through interviews (conducted by one of the authors,
M.B.)
or by answering a questionnaire prepared by the authors. Additional written information was made available by the experts. The authors are indebted to these experts (listed in the Acknowledgments) for their assistance.In this paper we first describe some of the common elements of smog alarm systems, and then present specific information about these systems in different countries. We then compare the systems and draw some conclusions and recommendations that are particularly relevant to cities in Central and Eastern Europe.
Chapter 2
Elements of Smog Alarm Systems
The purpose of a smog alarm system is to alert the public and particular groups to dangerously high air pollution levels and, in some cases, to act to reduce the impact of these levels. A smog alarm is usually called by local government officials based on results of real-time monitoring of air quality, weather forecasts of episodic conditions, and the advice of experts. The smog alarm itself is typically divided into various stages
-
pre-alarm, level 1, level 2, etc., referring to the severity of the air pollution episode. These stages are based on various critieria, such as the concentration of a particular pollutant exceeding a prescribed threshold for a given amount of time. For each stage of alarm a variety of counter-measures are prescribed from very simple, such a health advisory, to rather stringent such as severe traffic restrictions. These counter- measures, together with a plan to implement them, are contained in an Emergency Action Plan which is implemented by local officials on the advice of experts. The authority for local officials to develop such a plan and carry it out is invested in a smog regulation which may stem from the municipal, provincial, or national government. The Plan is coordinated from an Emergency Action Center, physically based at an appropriate government bureau such as the offices of the weather service or environmental agency. These key elements of a smog alarm system are now described in more detail.Monitoring of Air Qualify
A necessary element of an episode warning system is a city-wide network of automatic monitors for measuring in real-time the levels of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical smog, and other important pollutants. Since, as already noted, smog alarm systems aim to protect public health, the pollutants monitored are considered to have special public health impacts. The current minute-to-minute trend of these pollutants is used in combination with meteorological forecasts to predict the likelihood of an episode. Real-time air quality data are also used during an episode to select the appropriate level of alarm, as we will describe shortly. Based on our survey of smog alarm systems, about 0.5 to 2.0 monitoring stations are typically used per 100,000 inhabitants (see Chapter 11 of this report). The number of stations depends on many factors, such as the complexity of terrain and meteorological situations, the frequency and severity of air pollution episodes, as well as the simple availability of funds to finance the equipment. Indeed, these monitors are likely to be the single largest expense of a smog alarm system. Because of the high cost of these monitors and their importance in forecasting and assessing episodes, it is crucial to site them effectively. On the other hand, it is not quite correct to assign the full cost of this monitoring equipment to a smog alarm system because they are also used for many other purposes. Munn (1981) lists four functions in addition to episode warning systems: (1) to monitor air quality standards, (2) to track long-term trends in air quality, (3) to validate planning models, and (4) to investigate the relationship
between air pollution and public health, materials damage, and other effects. These reasons alone provide sufficient justification for a montoring system, without taking into account their role in a smog alarm system.
Stages and Criteria for Calling Alanns
As noted above, the severity of an air pollution episode is indicated by the various stages of a smog alarm. A variety of criteria are employed for deciding which stage of an alarm should be announced including: (1) exceedance of an air concentration threshold, (2) number of hours a threshold is exceeded, (3) a forecast of persistence of unfavorable meteorological conditions, and (4) number of monitoring stations in which a threshold is exceeded. Sometimes a combination of these criteria is used.
The air concentration thresholds and other criteria vary substantially from country to country and city to city, as will be discussed in Chapter 11. There is an obvious need for harmonizing these thresholds.
Forecasting Episodes
The more advanced smog alarm systems not only announce alarms when episodic concentration occur, but try to anticipate their occurrence. This is done, as noted above, by combining the trend of real-time air quality data with weather forecasts of episodic conditions. These data are sometimes combined together in a computer model for improving the realibility of the forecasts.
Communication and Counter Measures
An essential part of a smog alarm system is the procedure to alert public officials, the public, and others when an episode occurs or is expected to occur.
In some, but not all, smog alarm systems various counter-measures are prescribed for the different stages of alarm. Usually only warnings are given in the pre-alarm stage along with recommended measures, whereas various actions are required in the higher stages of alarm.
These can include, for example : (1) reduction or elimination of incineration processes, (2) restrictions on vehicle usage (3) required switching of fuels, and (4) reduction of room heating temperatures.
Organizational Aspects
The procedures to be taken in the event of an episode, as well as the criteria and other information needed for calling a smog alert as described above, are usually embodied in (1) a smog ordinance which is a binding governmental law, and (2) an emergency action plan which lays out the steps to be taken by local officials. In addition, most smog alarm systems also have a designated emergency action center where forecast information physically is brought together, and where experts and officials use this information to take decisions on a smog alarm. The center also serves as a communication center for informing the public and others about an episode. The emergency action center is commonly situated in the offices of the local environmental agency or weather service.
Chapter 3
Smog Alarm Systems of Austria
Austria's population density of 93 persons per km2 is low according to European standards. This fact may explain why only three smog areas were regulated by the federal winter smog alarm law of 1991. In spring 1992 two winter smog areas were added to the region of Greater Vienna in Lower Austria, and Austria became the first European country to introduce a summer smog alarm law. The law divides the country into 12 districts covering all of Austria.
A smog alarm is called if the ambient concentration of SO2, SPM, NO2, CO, or O3 exceeds specified thresholds (Table 3.1). The concentration must be exceeded at 33% of the available stations or, at least at two stations in the case of 0 3 . The smog alarm is declared over if no station exceeds the pre-alarm threshold for 12 hours. The announcement of a pre-alarm must specify the magnitude by which pollutants exceed the thresholds and the stations recording this value. At pre-alarms only health advisories are announced. In case of a level 1 alarm or level 2 alarm, the time when the measures are to be enforced must be announced.
Smog Alum Communication
The smog alarm laws describe the communication procedure during the various stages of a smog alarm. Their detailed elaboration is left to the responsible authorities.
In all cases the Minister for Environment and the local mayor of the smog areas are informed. Also notified are local health-care officials, school administrators, local environmental protection authorities, trade and craft associations, district authorities, the police, the federal road division administration, the military, public transportation services, the post and telecommunication agency, and managers of the main industrial plants. On request citizen
Table 3.1. Threshold levels for smog alarms in Austria, in micrograms per cubic meter.
AU
threshold values are three-hours mean values.
Constituent Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm
0 3 200 300 400
'SPM more than 200.
Figure 3.1. Smog alarm communication in Austria.
Table 32. Austrian winter smog alarm measures.
Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm Exemptions
Industry Voluntary measures Implementing plans Level 1 measures Possible to reduce emissions for main polluters; plus possible according to such as the use of Banning of high-sulfur closing of approved plans.
low-sulfur fuels. fuels. industry.
Traffic Avoiding use of Instituting traffic Level 1 measures Cars with private cars; regulations for plus prohibiting catalytic Encouraging use of private cars such major public converter public transportation. as restricted zones. gatherings. mounted after
January 1987;
Public transport;
Ambulances;
Doctors;
Veterinarians;
F i e brigades;
Military vehicles;
Emergency vehicles.
Heating Lowering room Further lowering of Level 1 measures Schools;
thermostats. room thermostats; plus lowering Hospitals Introducing upper upper limit of
limits of room room temperature.
temperature.
groups and newspapers can be included in the information system. The various steps of the smog alarm have to be announced to the public through the media together with a general health advice. Recently, teletext information was introduced. (See also Figure 3.1 .)
Measures
A series of measures are prescribed in the federal law (Table 3.2). Pre-alarms are meant to stimulate voluntary measures, and to give health advice to risk groups, while level 1 and level 2 measures place restrictions on industry, traffic, and domestic heating.
Until now little experience has been gained in implementing countermeasures because no alarms have occurred in Austria since the federal guidelines were adopted in 1991. However it is anticipated that it will be easier to counter industrial emissions than to counter traffic and other emissions because the main industries producing emissions are relatively few in number and are being checked by pollution-control authorities. Traffic emissions and domestic heating a r e not comprehensively controlled.
The new summer smog alarm law of April 1992 regulates ozone and recommends measures to reduce the precursor substances of ozone during smog periods. It is expected that by 1994 plans will be under way to achieve this. The summer smog law covers large, separately defined smog alarm regions in Austria. These regions are larger than the winter smog areas.
Graz
Graz is the second largest city in Austria and capital of the province of Styria, with a population of 249,000 on 127 krn2. The smog area includes parts of the neighboring communities of Feldkirchen and Seiersberg. The emergency action center is within the air-quality department
of the federal province of Styria in Graz. The winter smog alarm area is situated in a canyon which makes it particularly vulnerable to temperature inversions and consequently to air- pollution episodes.
There are six multicomponent measurement sites, with six measuring NO2, four measuring SO2 and SPM, and two measuring C O and 0 3 . Until now only NO2 emissions have exceeded the pre-alarm level. At least two stations have to exceed threshold levels and the continuation of the inversion has to be expected to last longer than 12 hours for a pre-alarm to be announced.
The cost of establishing the entire measurement network for Styria (44 stations, thereof 42 measuring SO2, 28 measuring SPM, 37 measuring NO,, 4 C O and 17 0 3 ) was about US$ 5 million. In addition there are annual costs of US$ 0.5 million to maintain the network. Every five years the measurement network is replaced to provide exact measurements.
Major sources of pollution are automobile traffic (which was responsible for exceeding the NO2 pre-alarm threshold on the shopping Saturdays before Christmas in 1988 and 1989), local industries, and domestic heating. No summer smog alarm has been registered.
Smog Alarm Communication
In addition to institutions mentioned above at level 1, the Austrian railways are informed. Direct information can be obtained by telephone.
Measures at Different Alarm Steps
All
measures in Table 3.2 are enforced. Additional level 1 alarm measures include:From 5 a.m. to 9 p.m. cars with certain number plates may not be used if the alarm was announced before 8 p.m. the previous day.
Industrial plants without flue-gas cleaners are forbidden to heat with fuels over 1% S content or 0.4 g S content for each megajoule heating unit.
The room temperature has to be lower than 18°C. Kindergartens, retirement homes, and convalescent homes are exempted from this restriction. Gas heating with emissions lower than 100 mg NO,/N mJ are also excluded from this regulation.
Industries have to save at least 25% of the final energy that is used on average.
Each measure of industrial unit over 100 kW incineration power has to be documented for eventual checks by the control authority.
Additional level 2 alarm measures are:
Two hours after the announcement all traffic not exempted is prohibited.
Room temperatures have to be further reduced to 17OC.
Industries have to save at least 50% of the final energy that is used on average.
Linz
Linz is the third largest city in Austria with a size of 98 km2 and 203,000 inhabitants. The actual smog area of Linz is about 150 km2 and is split into three zones: zone one comprises the town of Linz and neighboring Steyregg; zone two is made up of the communities Asten, St. Florian, Enns, and Luftenberg; and zone three comprises Leonding, Pasching, Traun, and Ansfelden. The emergency action center is situated within the air-quality department of the federal province of Upper Austria in Linz. There are 10 measurement sites in the smog area, and 7 are in Linz.
The winter smog area is surrounded by mountains which trap polluted air in the west, north, and east. For a smog alarm at least three stations have to exceed threshold levels, and the inversion has to be expected to last longer than 12 hours.
The cost to establish the measurement network for Linz and Upper Austria (20 stations), which was established in 1977, was about US$7 million; the annual cost to maintain the network is US$ 0.5 million. Ten people a r e employed by the network. Every five years the measuring equipment is replaced.
The main polluting sources of Linz are local industries, traffic, and domestic heating. Long- range transport has had only a small impact on local smog episodes.
Since 1977 the winter smog alarm regulation has been changed three times: 1980, 1985, and 1989. (The last change in 1989 was in accordance with the national smog alarm law of 1991.) A level 1 alarm has never been achieved even though single stations have exceeded the threshold of SO2 (Steyregg in 1985). Nine smog pre-alarms have been registered since 1980.
All
of them were caused by the combination of SO2 and SPM. In addition one station has exceeded the level1 threshold for NO2 (Steyregg in 1985).
Smog Alarm Communication
The necessary steps of the smog alarm are broadcast on the radio and repeated every hour.
In addition there is a telephone service to provide information to the public. Newspapers can directly contact the center, and interested institutions can have direct access to data.
Citizen groups in Linz and Steyregg have had an influence on the design of the smog alarm ordinance, but they are not involved in its implementation.
Measures at Diflerent Alarm Steps
The measures a r e the same as described in Table 3.2.
Vienna
Vienna is part of the largest winter smog alarm district of Austria; this district includes three smog alarm areas. Since April 1992 Greater Vienna in Lower Austria has had a winter smog alarm regulation too. Some 1,590,000 people live in Vienna on 415 km2. Smog episodes have not affected Vienna severely, because winds generally prevent the buildup of air pollutants.
Regulations do not exist for summer smog yet, but are expected to be developed by November 1992. With regard to winter smog a pre-alarm or a level 1 alarm is automatically proclaimed in Vienna if a level 1 or 2 alarm is proclaimed in neighboring Lower Austria. There are two emergency action centers situated in the center of Vienna. One is for the city of Vienna and another one for the federal province of Lower Austria.
The city of Vienna has 14 multicomponent stations which measure smog-relevant data of SO2, SPM, and NO2; six of them measure C O and four measure 03. At least 33% of the stations have to exceed threshold values to proclaim a smog alarm (i.e., five stations for SO2, SPM, and NO2; two stations for C O and 03). In addition, the smog situation should be forecasted to continue for more than 12 hours.
The main polluting sources are traffic, domestic heating, and industry. Long-range transport is not very important. Until now no pre-alarm has been registered. A pre-alarm would have been given for ozone in 1990 if the 1992 summer smog alarm law had been enforced.
Smog Alarm Communication
In addition to following the federal communication standards, Vienna has air-quality displays mounted on the sides of two buildings in the center of the city. Before proclaiming a pre-alarm the governor of Lower Austria must be informed.
Smog Alum Measures
The smog alarm measures are indicated in Table 3.2. It has not yet been necessary to enforce any of these measures in Vienna.
Chapter 4
Smog Alarm Systems of Germany
There are 93 smog areas in Germany. Fifty-three are situated in the former German Democratic Republic and have recently been established according to the standards of the Federal Republic of Germany. Each German state (Lander) determines which of the most polluted areas a r e to be declared smog alarm areas. Only these areas are regulated by the winter smog ordinance. No summer smog ordinance exists in Germany.
In 1987 a federal smog ordinance (Mustersmogverordnung) was established by a group of experts; it provides guidelines for all smog areas. Table 4.1 lists the guidelines. Unless otherwise indicated, all threshold values in the table are three-hour mean concentrations that have to be exceeded for another three hours. Only the S02/SPM index is a 24-hour average. If the pre- alarm concentration continues for 72 hours, a level 1 alarm is proclaimed. If a level 1 concentration continues for 72 hours, a level 2 alarm is proclaimed. The smog alarm terminates when values for SO2 are under 400 pg mm", values for SPM are under 300 pg mm", values for NO2 are under 200 pg mmJ, and values for C O are under 30,000 pg mm".
Measurement sites should not be more than 10 km from each other; however, as smog alarm areas have been very diverse in size and topography, no recommendations on the number of measurement sites have been made.
Smog-relevant concentrations are collected every three hours. According to the guidelines, a winter smog alarm must be announced under the following conditions: an inversion under 700 meters; a minimum wind speed during the last 12 hours of 1.5 to 4 meters per second; a forecasted continuation of the inversion for the next 24 hours; at least one-third of the stations exceed threshold levels or the mean of one constituent of all stations relevant to the smog alarm exceeds the threshold or a concentration of a constituent is exceeded in at least two neighboring measurement sites.
Although the states must follow the guidelines, they can decide independently which areas are to be regulated by the smog ordinance.
Table 4.1. Threshold values in the German federal smog ordinance, in micrograms per cubic meter.
Constituent Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm
SO2
+
2 x SPM (24-hour) 1,100 1,400 1,700Ozone is not currently regulated in the German smog ordinance. However an advisory value of 180 pg mmJ (30-minute average) and a pre-alarm value of 240 pg mmJ (30-minute average) are under discussion.
Smog Alum Communication
The emergency action center collects the data and advises the Minister of Environment on the smog situation. Smog measures are valid one hour after the first announcement. The warning has to be repeated several times on radio and television. In addition key institutions that are directly involved in implementing the smog measures (e.g., the police or local control authorities) are informed by fax or telephone. Teletext information on summer smog and winter smog is also available.
In this chapter four different smog areas in Germany are described: Berlin (which was isolated for many years as a western enclave in eastern territory), Hof (which is in the smog area of Nordostoberfranken; almost all pollution is imported), the Rhine Ruhr area (which is the most densely populated area in western Germany), and the new smog areas of Sachsen and Sachsen- Anhalt (which includes Dresden, Halle, and Leipzig).
Recommended Measures
The smog alarm measures in the German federal ordinance are listed in Table 4.2. Exemptions from smog alarm measures are granted by the smog alarm commission, based in the Ministry of Environment in each state.
Table 42. Recommended smog measures.
Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm Exemptions
Industry Voluntary measures Implementing approved Closing of main Possible according to to reduce emissions plans for main polluters; polluting industry. approved plans (such such as the use of 40% emission reduction as furnaces for low-sulfur fuels. required; Banning of public buildings,
high-sulfur fuels for less store houses, warm
polluting plants. water facilities).
Traffic Avoiding use of Instituting traffic Restricted zones all Autobahn travel;
private cars; regulations for private day plus prohibiting Electric cars; Cars Encouraging use of cars such as restricted major public with catalytic public transportation; zones during 6 a.m. gatherings. converter; Public Free public transport to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. transport and
in some cities. to 8 p.m. services; Cabs; Cars
for the handicapped;
Ambulances; Doc- tors; Veterinarians;
Fire brigades;
Military vehicles;
Emergency vehicles;
Election day.
Heating Lowering room Further lowering of Level 1 measures Schools; Hospitals.
thermostats room thermostats; plus lowering upper Introducing upper limit of room limits of room temperature (e.g., temperature (e.g., 15°C in Berlin).
18°C in Berlin).
Berlin's population is 3,350,000 on an area of 883 km2. Before unification the two million people of West Berlin were living in a western enclave of 480 km2 amidst the Eastern European environment. The import of pollutants was West Berlin's largest source of air pollution and the cause of smog alarms. Between 1969 and 1989 the annual average SO2 concentration was reduced by 60% to 80 pg mm3. This is much higher than the annual average in other western German cities, but lower than the values in Halle, Leipzig, and Dresden. West Berlin was equipped with 38 multicomponent measurement sites. Before unification there were only six stations in East Berlin. Since then some stations in the western part of the city have been transferred to the eastern part. Thirty-six stations are smog relevant: 33 stations measure SO2 and SPM; 21 measure NO2; 19 measure CO; and 9 measure 03.
Between 1980 and 1991 17 smog alarms were announced in West Berlin (since 1990 entire Berlin). Smog pre-alarms were announced 11 times; level 1 alarms were announced 4 times; and level 2 alarms given twice. The most severe episodes were mainly caused by emissions from domestic heating in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s pollution import from the neighboring areas was most important. The more stringent requirements of the new smog ordinance, adopted in 1990, would have increased the number of smog alarms in the 1980s by 20%.
Smog Alarm Communication
If all conditions are met, a smog alarm is announced on the radio and TV. All institutions directly involved in the winter smog alarm plan are informed. Summer smog information is available to risk groups, schools, and health-care services if three of the nine measurement sites exceed a 30-minute mean of 180 pg m'3.
Smog Alarm Measures
Three hours after a smog alarm announcement the traffic restrictions listed in Table 4.2. take effect. Public transportation and industries have to execute emergency plans.
Some experts claim executing only local measures is inefficient, because these measures can- not reduce total pollution concentration by more than 10%. Local measures obviously cannot control pollutants from outside the city.
Hof
Hof is in the smog district Nordostoberfranken I in Bavaria. Some 120,000 inhabitants live on an area of 903 km2. The area is not densely populated. Hof receives air pollution from neighboring areas, mainly from eastern Germany and the CSFR.
Two component measurement sites measure all smog-relevant components. The environment agency of Bavaria in Munich is responsible for the maintenance of the measurement network. Between 1985 and 1990 SO2 pre-alarms were announced six times.
Smog Communication and Measures
In the case of a smog alarm the general communication standard applies to Hof. Only industries have to execute smog alarm plans. There are no restricted zones for private traffic, and no plans exist to reduce local heating.
Rhine Ruhr Area
The Rhine Ruhr area (Ruhrgebiet) in the German state of Nordrhein-Westfahlen has long been a smog area. The 7 million people living on its 3,700 km2 were exposed to several smog periods during the 1960s and 1970s when sulfur dioxide concentrations reached 2,000 to 3,000 pg m-3.
The annual average was over 200 pg in 1964, which corresponds to today's values for polluted industrial zones in Eastern Europe. Today the Rhine Ruhr area has about 30 pg m", the best annual mean SO2 value of all areas described in this chapter. Winter smog is no longer a problem.
There are 66 multicomponent measurement sites in the area, but only 54 are relevent for smog episodes.
AU
sites measure SO2, SPM, NO2, and CO, and 33 sites measure 03. The emergency action center is situated in Essen at the Landesanstalt fur Immissionsschutz (LIS).All stations are directly connected to the center (there is no preprocessing of the data at the stations), and every minute a value is transferred to the central computer at LIS. The current 30-minute value for all stations is depicted on a screen. Comparisons between single stations and early interpretations of smog episodes are then carried out.
The cost for one multicomponent station is some US$ 300,000.
A l l
together the measurement network costs US$ 20 million. The network is also used for other air-quality purposes. The annual cost to maintain the measurement network is about US$ 1.6 million.Before 1986 the Rhine Ruhr area was divided into two smog areas; today it is divided into five areas.
The threshold levels for SO2 and SPM have changed drastically. Legislation concerning episodes did not exist before 1974, when the worst episodes had already occurred. However, guidelines regulating SO2 have existed since 1963. Table 4.3 lists the guidelines established in
1963, 1972, 1973, 1974, and 1985.
For a short period the index was calculated over 24 hours. In the last 30 years smog alarm plans have developed from simple guidelines into rather complicated ordinances. There is no longer an acute danger from regulated constituents like SO2. Nevertheless, health risks are assumed to be higher due to the still unregulated ozone.
In the 1960s local industrial activities and domestic heating with sulfur-rich coal were by far the most important source of air pollution. However in recent years the situation has changed.
Today automobile traffic and long-range transport from Eastern Europe is considered to be more important.
Smog Communication
When a smog episode has been forecast, an advisory board is called in by the Ministry of Environment in Dusseldorf. The board stays in direct contact with the data processing center at the LIS in Essen. Every 30 minutes the Minister of Environment is informed about the situation; the Minister determines whether to announce an alarm. Some 60 faxes are sent out to key institutions such as the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Economy, all subordinate administrators who execute the regulations, and the media. A smog alarm is announced to the public on the radio and TV.
The police and various industrial inspectors carry out the smog alarm plan. Although emergency action plans were initiated by politicians, and not by citizen groups, the role of citizen groups is very important because they put pressure on decision makers to take action.
Smog Alum Measures
AU
measures described in Table 4.2 are valid. In addition pre-alarm measures like closing smokestacks and not heating swimming pools are advised. The experience of the Rhine RuhrTable 43. Threshold values in the Rhine Ruhr area, in micrograms per cubic meter.
-
Constituent Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
a ~ ~ 2 / ~ . 4 + NO2/0.3 + C0/15 + total Cl2.5.
b ~+ ~2 x SPM. 2
area demonstrates that the winter smog alarm problem can be solved efficiently. Even though long-term measures are mainly responsible for the improved air quality, short-term smog alarm measures have given economic incentives to industries to improve their facilities.
Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt
The new state of Sachsen-Anhalt is situated on 20,292 krn2 and has a population of 3.1 million.
Sachsen is smaller (17,713 km2) but has a larger population (5.1 million). The inhabitants of these two new states of Germany were exposed to extremely high pollution loads when the region was still part of the German Democratic Republic. The area had the highest per caput SO2 emissions of Europe. The old districts of Dresden, Halle, Leipzig, and Karl-Man Stadt (Chemnitz) had an annual average SO2 concentration ranging between 50 pg m-' and 530 pg me3.
The urban areas had an annual average concentration of 200 pg m-3. Even though emissions were drastically reduced by the closing of some of the main polluting industries (experts estimate a 30% emission reduction), health risks due to winter smog are still very high.
The first winter smog ordinance for the GDR was introduced in 1987, and regulated only SO2. It was revised in 1989 and valid until new smog ordinances were set up according to the 1991 federal guideline. Each state has 10 smog areas. The measurement network in these areas is still under development. The old GDR measurement network concentrated only on problem areas where population densities were high.
Figure 4.1. Smog alarm communication in Germany.
There are 33 multicomponent measurement sites in Sachsen. The constituents measured at each station are not indicated. In Sachsen-Anhalt there are 26 multicomponent measurement sites: 20 measure SO2 and SPM; 8 measure NO,, CO, and 03.
In both states, industries, electric power generation, and domestic heating have been responsible for smog episodes. Outdated heating plants without filters had an efficiency rate that was under 30%. High-sulfur coal with up to 9% sulfur content was used; its share increased in the 1980s because this coal originated from local sources. Plants were often used over their capacity, and the incineration processes were not properly performed.
After the unification several of the main polluting plants were closed, thus reducing industrial emissions. However, automobile traffic, which was not a problem before, has grown rapidly. In addition to the local air pollution, long-range transports from neighboring CSFR and Poland have become a problem.
Smog Alarm Communication
The Ministry of Environment of Sachsen-Anhalt in Magdeburg and Sachsen in Dresden announce the various steps of a smog alarm. A smog alarm is announced on the radio and TV and becomes valid for citizens and the control authorities after its proclamation.
Smog Alarm Measures
Measures are the same as those listed in Table 4.2. Until this year exemptions were frequently granted to give citizens and industries the chance to adapt to the new situation. In addition the winters have been mild, and very critical situations like the ones in the mid-1980s have not re- occurred. (See also Figure 4.1.)
Chapter 5
Smog Alarm Systems of Italy
Italy has no federal smog alarm regulation. General air quality standards are defined by a national law of 1983.
Milan, the commercial center of noxthem Italy with 1,561,000 inhabitants on 182 km2, has unfavorable climatic conditions with wind speeds less than two meters per second and during the winter a temperature inversion at a height of 300 to 400 meters. This is the main reason for frequent smog alarm episodes, which occur about three times a year and last seven to ten days. Similar to Eastem European countries, the mean annual concentration of SO, is exceeded by as much as three times the recommended WHO guidelines (40 to 60 pg m-3). In the 1970s and 1980s. SO, values of up to 2,700 pg m-3 were registered during the winter. Milan is the only locale that has developed a smog alarm system for winter smog. As a first step in regulating summer smog an ozone measurement network will be installed by 1995 to measure photo-oxidants. Only two levels of alarm have been established, pre-alarm and alarm. Milan's smog ordinance is based on the 1983 national law of air quality (Table 5.1).
The main source of local SO, concentrations is home heating; industrial smokestacks contribute more to long-range export than to local episodes. Although high levels of SO, occasionally occur, a greater air pollution problem are photo-oxidant pollutants. The main precursors are NO, and hydrocarbon gases, mainly originating from the 700,000 to 900,000 vehicles entering Milan every day.
In 1973 Milan started measuring SO, concentrations; in 1986 it began measuring NO,; and measurements of CO were initiated in 1989. Milan has 10 multicomponent measurement sites, regularly measuring SO, (six), SPM (four), NO, (five), CO (eight), and 0, (two). There are 60 measurement sites in the whole province of Milan. The public health office of Milan province, where Table 5.1. Air-quality standards in Italy, in microgram per cubic meter.
Constituent Max. 24-hour mean Max. 1-hour mean
so2
80 250 (98 percentile)SPM 150 300 (95 percentile)
--
"Eight-hour mean.
Figure 5.1. Smog alarm communication in Italy (Milan).
20
Table 53. Threshold levels for smog alarms in Milan, in micrograms per cubic meter. All threshold values are one-hour mean values.
Constituent re-alarmb Alarm
CO lO.000 30,000
'Not indicated as smog alarm constituent
bAfter 120 hours prealarm the alarm level is announced
the emergency action center is located, is responsible for maintaining this network and for organizing the emergency action center. Data are collected and processed at 20 to 30 seconds intervals. Every half hour these data are sent to a central computer. In addition, the meteorological service supplies the emergency action center with current weather conditions and forecasts of general atmospheric circulations that effect the area (see also Figure 5.1).
Pre-alarms and alarms for winter smog are announced when 50% of all stations exceed the threshold levels listed in Table 5.2. But the fact that some stations operate less than 50% of the time, due to technical breakdowns, reduces the likelihood that a smog alarm will be announced.
Nevertheless, pre-alarms are frequently called.
Air pollution concentrations are greater on weekdays than on Saturdays and Sundays. Therefore many pre-alarm situations are concluded by the weekend. If the pre-alarm lasts from Monday to Friday a smog alarm is announced on Saturday and countermeasures must be taken on Sunday. After a Sunday with a smog alarm, instead of counting the previous days with smog pre-alarm, the counting for new smog situations begins on Monday.
In the late 1970s G. Finzi et al. from the Polytechnico in Milan developed a model to predict SO, episodes, 24 hours in advance. This model had a reliability of 80%, but is not used to predict episodes.
Smog Alarm Communication
The emergency center, situated at the public health office, informs when threshold levels are exceeded.
Faxes are sent to the institutions involved in the smog alarm plan. The alarm is broadcasted in the radio (see Figure 5.1).
Smog Alarm Measures
No specified measures have to be taken to reduce SO, emissions during an alarm. Measures are required to reduce NO, and hydrocarbon emissions during smog alarms. During episodes motorists are prohibited from the city center. In addition, on specific days only vehicles with certain number plates are allowed to drive in Milan. This reduces the traffic not by 50% but only by some 15%.
Individuals often do not want to use public transport, which is regarded as unreliable. Bus drivers claim that it is not possible to be reliable because private cars block the streets. Italy has not yet introduced legislation requiring the use of catalytic converters.
During episodes people suffering from health problems are advised to stay indoors.
Chapter 6
Smog Alarm Systems of Japan
Japan has winter and summer smog alarm ordinances in 47 smog areas, which are determined according to the borders of provinces (prefectures). While the problem of winter smog is considered to be solved, summer smog continues to cause smog alarm episodes. In 1988 a pre- alarm (240 pg m-3, one-hour mean value) was announced in 16 prefectures on 86 days, about half as many days as in 1987.
Smog alarm regulations were developed in the 1970s as a result of public pressure. The 47 prefectures designed guidelines for the cities according to the 1977 national air-pollution control law. This law defines general air-quality standards (Table 6.1). Municipalities have designed their smog alarm ordinances according to these guidelines.
Because of permanent pollution controls, the reduction of SO concentration was dramatic.
The average SO, station measured 150 ~g mmJ in 1967 and 26 ~g
Z~ZJ
in 1986. Today only 1.2%of all values are over the recommended guidelines. SPM fell from 59 pg mm3 in 1974 to 41 pg m" in 1987.
NO, levels, however, have increased. In 1970 the average measurement of NO, was 44 pg m3; today it is 56 pg mm3. Some 37% of all values exceed the 98 percentile.
Four alarm steps have been established for 03, including a smog information step. In Japan the recommended hourly O3 values for smog pre-alarm (240 pg m j ) are exceeded 5.2 days on average during the year. However, pre-alarms are less frequent in the Tokyo and Osaka bay areas (2.6 and 2.1 days on average in 1987).
Smog Alarm Communication
Smog alarm communication is similar in all prefectures. Each city in a prefecture has its own emergency action center. The prefecture coordinates these emergency action centers and
Table 6.1. Air-quality standards in Japan, in micrograms per cubic meter (original values for SO,, NO,, CO, and O3 in ppb).
Constituent Max. 1-hour mean Max. daily mean 98 percentilea
SPM 200 100
'98% of all daily mean values.
23
Ministry of Environment:
City smog ordi nancc Governor
Dcsignatcd factories for emission control (direct control)
Related city sections
v
f
Schools; Public- health centersLocal environment bureau and emergency action center
(
Neighboring prefectures)
communities
Prefectural Police
Prefectural automobile control committee
C
(model forecast)
Local meteorological Residents: Motorists. Ci tizcns
measures to reduce the regional emissions within the prefecture; it also stays in contact with neighboring prefectures. The communication at the city level is presented in Figure 6.1.
Smog Alurrn Measures
Several cities in a prefecture belong to the same smog area. Therefore, if threshold values are exceeded in one city, measures may also be required in neighboring cities in the same prefecture.
The alarm levels between smog areas can differ significantly.
In general measures are stricter for industries than for automobile users and domestic heating. This is because auto emissions are considered to have a relatively small impact on air quality and domestic heating emits low levels of emissions because it is generated by low-sulfur fuels, gas, or electricity (mainly originating from nuclear energy). In addition, large industries are easier to control than other sources.
Kawasaki
Kawasaki is situated between the Tokyo and Yokohama harbor. Some 1,188,000 people live on 144 krn2. It is supposed to be one of most air polluted areas in Japan.
The first measurements of pollutants (SO2) were taken in 1957. In 1964 the first automatic station was established. The first centralized air-monitoring system was introduced in 1968, and in 1972 the air-monitoring agency was established. Since then nine multicomponent measurement stations have been installed.
AU
of them measure SO2, NO2, and 0 3 ; three also measure CO. In addition there are nine stations not used in the smog alarm system; all are situated near highways to measure auto emissions. The smog regulations are listed in Table 6.2.A winter smog has not occurred in the last 20 years. Domestic heating is not a main polluter because sulfur is removed from heating oil at the refinery. In addition, natural gas and nuclear power are used for heating. Summer smog alarms occurred 30 times in the period from 1981 to 1990. Twenty-four factories are responsible for 90% of NO, and SO2 gases from stationary sources.
Table 6 2 . Smog regulations for Kawasaki, in micrograms per cubic meter (original values in P P ~ ) .
3-hour mean 2-hour mean l-hour mean
Wnter smog (SO3
Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm Summer smog ( 0 3 ) Information
Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm
(2 stations) (2 stations) (1 station)
- - -
'one measurement value
Smog Alarm Communication
The emergency action centers send out faxes to related city agencies. They inform some 700 organizations such as hospitals, schools, and the police about the alarm. All relevant agencies of Kanagawa prefecture are notified. Neighboring cities are also informed about the smog alarm in Kawasaki; these cities then notify their local factories. The 31 main polluting factories of Kawasaki are informed directly by the emergency action center. Pollution reduction measures are controlled directly by the center, which has on-line access to the data of the emission exhaust measurement sites of these factories. The alarm is announced on the radio and by loudspeakers (see also Figure 6.1).
Smog Alarm Measures
Pre-alarm measures. Total fuel consumption must be reduced by 30% at industrial sites such as refineries and incinerators.
Flue gases a r e measured and the measurements are sent to Kawasaki Pollution Control Center. There they a r e compared with predetermined values in the case of a smog alarm. No traffic measures are undertaken at the pre-alarm level.
Level 1 and level 2 alarm measures. Measures are specific for each industry. The governor of the prefecture may impose traffic restrictions.
Kitakyushu
Kitakyushu is the industrial center of the island, covering an area of 466 km2 with a population of 1,065,000 million. There are 64 industries in the area, including Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Metal Co. Industries, electric power plants, and automobiles a r e the main polluters.
The air-pollution monitoring center was established in 1970. Today there a r e 14 smog- relevant multicomponent measurement sites in Kitakyushu. In addition there are five automobile-exhaust inspection stations and two air-pollution measurement sites.
The last winter smog alert was announced in 1974. A summer smog has not been announced in the last 15 years. In addition to threshold values, the meteorological forecast is relevant in determining an alarm.
The air-pollution monitoring center of Kitakyushu is cooperating with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in offering a course on techniques and management of pollution control in Third World countries. This course, which lasts from one to three months, might be useful for people in Eastern Europe.
Smog Communication
A flowchart of the communication process in Kitakyushu is provided in Figure 6.1. The emergency action center is the focal point in a smog alarm. The data from the measurement sites are studied by experts at the meteorological observatory. The city mayor is responsible for announcing the alarm. The prefectural agencies coordinate smog measures on a regional scale and control the execution of measures. The emergency action center is in direct contact with the main industrial polluters, and in indirect contact with schools and health services through city agencies as well as with the public through the media.
Smog M e a w e s
If concentrations exceed the alarm levels companies have to reduce emissions to the levels defined in the smog alarm plan, which is revised every five years. A pre-alarm demands an emission reduction of 20%. More rigid measures may be undertaken at level 1 and level 2 alarms.
Kobe
Kobe has an area of 542 km2 and a population of 1,777,000. The environmental-pollution monitoring center runs an environmental-monitoring telemeter system (emission stations) and a source-monitoring telemeter system (automobile-exhaust stations and industrial-emission stations). Both are connected to the data processing system (central monitoring station) that combines the subsystems during a smog alarm.
There are 13 emission stations for SO2 and SPM, 12 for NO, and photochemical oxidants (indirect 03), and 1 for direct O3 measurements. Each hour the emission and pollution-source monitoring stations, which are equipped with a telementer, transfer the data to the central monitoring station. These data a r e use to forecast the air-pollution level in Kobe. The smog regulations for Kobe are listed Table 6.3.
The latest announcement of a winter smog pre-alarm was in 1973; the latest level 1 alarm was in 1971. The summer smog pre-alarm level (240 pg m-3) was reached four times in 1990.
Level 1 (400 pg m-3) and level 2 (800 pg m
J,
summer smog alarms have never been announced.Smog Alarm Communication
Every morning the forecast of photochemical oxidents for the day is given to all interested institutions or citizens. In the case of a pre-alarm the scheme in Figure 6.1 is executed.
Nagoya
Nagoya is an industrial center of Japan. Some 2,080,000 people live on 326 km2. Two smaller cities belong to the smog alarm area of Nagoya. There are 34 multicomponent measurement
Table 63. Smog regulations for Kobe, in micrograms per cubic meter (original values in ppb).
3-hour mean 2-hour mean 1-hour mean
Winter smog ( S O 3
Pre-alarm 267
Smog alarm 534
Summer smog ( 0 3 )
Information
-
Pre-alarm
-
Level 1 alarm
-
Level 2 alarm
-
F l o . sheet f o r announcement on SO2 a l a r a m n t e n t s 01 n u a b e r ~ ~n rlo. s n c c t .
3
Types o f a t m o s p h e r l ~ P r e s s u r e d ~ s l r i b u t l o n a r e a p t t o b r ~ n ~ h l r h c o n c r n t r m t l o n\ENT/ ( I f one o f (.)-(I) a p p l ~ , Y e s )
v
(Judre each t y p e u s e l n r s u r f a c e menlher c h a r t &I 3 . )( 8 ) I s Osaka s r r o n r m ~ r r a t o r r . n t l c r c i o n e ? (b) Behind l l l r s t o i r a n t l c y c l o n c .
&""---.
(c) l l t h l n h i ~ h b e l l .(d) C o l d f r o n t f o l l o m i n r c y c l o n e e x i s t i n Jmpm Sea I S mpproachlnr mt t h e c.51 o f Sanin d i s t r ~ c t .
c l o v d r ( e l Bet.cen 1.0 c r c l a n c s and fi cml o f p r e s s u r e .
( 1 ) Stationery f r o n t l o c a t e d mt s o u t h e r n shore and Pressure r r a d l c n t 1s r e n t l e . ( 6 ) Cold adr mars 1 5 i n t e r c c p t l n l b r c y c l o n e or c o l d f r o n t c r l r i ~ n r 40' N.120' E .
-
c.) l e a t h e r f o r c a s t e a r l y morn(mg f ~ n e ar c l o u d y or r a i n
I
(J\i I s * ~ n d speed a t Yonago C l t y o r Tskamalsu C l l y w ~ t h j n 3 m/rcc9 (,
7 Uoes 1 1 I s h e more than 3 hours t h s l l h e t l m e r e g u j r e d v n t i l l c o l d f r o n t . ( I 1 p a r s ?
b' O ~ f f e r r n c e o f p r e s s u r e
I s the d l f f r r e n c e o f p r e s s u r e between Osaka and Fukuoka w ~ t h l n 2 mb?
c;!
Westhcr f o r e c s s t e a r l y a o r n l n g I S the w ~ n d speed weah?!," -1
13) I s SO. c o u c e n t r e t ~ o n more than 0.15 P P ~ a t mare than 2 m o n t o r ~ n ~ s t e ! t o n s , &M n o t e - Forccssr i s announced P Y 4 50 sod i f each c o n d ~ t l o n s 1 5 psss a l s r a 1 5 announced a t h M 8 30 next day.Figure 6.2. Flowchart for announcing a winter smog alarm (SO2 alarm) in Osaka. Source:
Provided to IIASA by Hideuki Nomoto and Masako Sibaike of Osaka Air Pollution Control District.
Table 6.4. Theshold values for Osaka, in micrograms per cubic meter
Constituent Pre-alarm Level 1 alarm Level 2 alarm
SO, 534 (2 hours) 1,335' 1,335 (3 hours)
1,869 (2 hours)
SPM 2,000 (2 hours)
-
3,000 (3 hours)NO2 %O (1 hour)
-
1,920 (1 hour)0; 160 (information) 240 (1 hour) 00400 (1 hour) 800 (1 hour) 'only one value.
b03 has four alarm steps including the a smog information step.
sites: 20 measure photochemical oxidants in Nagoya city but only 9 stations within Aichi prefecture are able to measure summer smog pollutants. In addition there are 28 emission stations installed at the largest factories.
Only summer smog is important in Aichi prefecture. The threshold values are the same as those for Kobe (Table 6.3). Meteorological conditions are also important. There is no model in use to forecast episodes. However, the city of Nagoya collaborates closely with the prefecture
