e) The subset A := {(z1, z2) 2 C2 :|z1| |z2|} of the complex space C2 en- dowed with the euclidean topology is balanced butA˚is not balanced. Indeed, 8(z1, z2)2A and 8 2Cwith | |1 we have that
| z1|=| ||z1|| ||z2|=| z2|
i.e. (z1, z2) 2 A. Hence, A is balanced. If we consider instead ˚A = {(z1, z2) 2 C2 : |z1| < |z2|} then 8(z1, z2) 2 A˚and = 0 we have that
(z1, z2) = (0,0)2/ A. Hence, ˚˚ A is not balanced.
Proposition 2.1.13.
a) If B is a balanced subset of a t.v.s. X then so isB¯.
b) If B is a balanced subset of a t.v.s. X and o2B˚ thenB˚is balanced.
Proof. (Exercise Sheet 1)
Combining this result and Theorem2.1.10, we can easily obtain that:
Corollary 2.1.14.
a) Every t.v.s. has always a base of closed neighbourhoods of the origin.
b) Every t.v.s. has always a base of balanced absorbing neighbourhoods of the origin. In particular, it has always a base of closed balanced absorbing neighbourhoods of the origin.
c) Proper subspaces of a t.v.s. are never absorbing. In particular, if M is an open subspace of a t.v.s. X then M =X.
Proof. (Exercise Sheet 1) Proof. of Theorem2.1.10.
Necessity part.
Suppose that X is a t.v.s. then we aim to show that the filter of neighbour- hoods of the origin F satisfies the properties 1,2,3,4,5. LetU 2F.
1. obvious, since every set U 2F is a neighbourhood of the origino.
2. Since by the definition of t.v.s. the addition (x, y)7!x+yis a continuous mapping, the preimage ofU under this map must be a neighbourhood of (o, o)2X⇥X. Therefore, it must contain a rectangular neighbourhood W ⇥W0 whereW, W0 2F. TakingV =W \W0 we get the conclusion, i.e. V +V ⇢U.
3. By Proposition 2.1.7, fixed an arbitrary 06= 2K, the map x7! 1x ofXinto itself is continuous. Therefore, the preimage of any neighbour- hoodU of the origin must be also such a neighbourhood. This preimage is clearly U, hence U 2F.
2. Topological Vector Spaces
4. Let x 2X. By the continuity of the scalar multiplication at the point (0, x), the preimage of U under this map must contain a rectangular neighbourhood N ⇥(x+W) where N is a neighbourhood of 0 in the euclidean topology onKandW 2F. Hence, there exists⇢>0 such that B⇢(0) :={↵ 2 K: |↵| ⇢} ✓ N. ThusB⇢(0)⇥(x+W) is contained in the preimage ofU under the scalar multiplication, i.e. for anyy2W and any 2 K with | | ⇢ we have (x+y) 2 U. In particular, for y=o we get that U is absorbing.1
5. By the continuity of the scalar multiplication at the point (0, o)2K⇥X, the preimage ofU under this map must contain a rectangular neighbour- hoodN⇥W whereN is a neighbourhood of 0 in the euclidean topology on K and W 2 F. On the other hand, there exists ⇢ > 0 such that B⇢(0) := {↵ 2 K : |↵| ⇢} ✓ N. Thus B⇢(0)⇥W is contained in the preimage of U under the scalar multiplication, i.e. ↵W ⇢U for all
↵ 2K with|↵|⇢. Hence, the set V =S
|↵|⇢↵W ⇢U. Now V 2F since each ↵W 2F by 3 and V is clearly balanced (since for anyx2V there exists↵2Kwith|↵|⇢s.t. x2↵W and therefore for any 2K with| |1 we get x2 ↵W ⇢V because| ↵|⇢).
Sufficiency part.
Suppose that the conditions 1,2,3,4,5 hold for a filterF of the vector spaceX.
We want to show that there exists a topology⌧ onX such that F is the filter of neighbourhoods of the origin w.r.t. to ⌧ and (X,⌧) is a t.v.s. according to Definition2.1.1.
Let us define for any x2X the filterFx :={U+x: U 2F}. It is easy to see that Fx fulfills the properties (N1) and (N2) of Theorem 1.1.10. In fact, we have:
• By 1 we have that8U 2F, o2U, then8U 2F, x=o+x2U+x, i.e.
8A2Fx, x2A.
• LetA2Fx then A=U +x for someU 2F. By 2, we have that there exists V 2 F s.t. V +V ⇢U. Define B := V +x 2Fx and take any y 2 B then we have V +y ⇢ V +B ⇢V +V +x ⇢U +x =A. But V +y belongs to the filterFy and therefore so doesA.
By Theorem1.1.10, there exists a unique topology⌧ onX such thatFx is the filter of neighbourhoods ofx2Xand so for which in particularF is the filter
1Alternative proof Suppose thatU is not absorbing. Then there existsx2X such that for anyn2Nthere exists n2K with| n| n1 and nx /2U. But the sequence n!0 as n ! 1 and so the continuity of the scalar multiplication provides that also nx! o as n ! 1. Therefore, U contains infinitely many elements of { nx}n2N which yields a contradiction.
of neighbourhoods of the origin (i.e. Fx ⌘ F⌧(x),8x 2 X and in particular F ⌘F⌧(o)).
It remains to prove that the vector addition and the scalar multiplication inX are continuous w.r.t. to⌧.
• The continuity of the addition easily follows from the property 2. Indeed, let (x0, y0)2X⇥X and take a neighbourhood W of its image x0+y0. Then W =U +x0+y0 for some U 2F. By 2, there existsV 2F s.t.
V +V ⇢ U and so (V +x0) + (V +y0) ⇢ W. This implies that the preimage of W under the addition contains (V +x0)⇥(V +y0) which is a neighbourhood of (x0, y0).
• To prove the continuity of the scalar multiplication, let ( 0, x0)2K⇥X and take a neighbourhood U0 of 0x0. Then U0 = U + 0x0 for some U 2F. By 2 and 5, there exists W 2F s.t. W +W +W ⇢U and W is balanced. By 4, W is also absorbing so there exists⇢>0 (w.l.o.g. we can take⇢1 because of property 3) such that 8 2Kwith| |⇢we have x0 2W.
Suppose 0 = 0 then 0x0 =o andU0 =U. Now
Im(B⇢(0)⇥(W +x0)) ={ y+ x0 : 2B⇢(0), y2W}. As 2 B⇢(0) and W is absorbing, x0 2 W. Also since | | ⇢ 1 for all 2 B⇢(0) and since W is balanced, we have W ⇢ W. Thus Im(B⇢(0)⇥(W+x0))⇢W+W ⇢W+W+W ⇢U and so the preimage ofU under the scalar multiplication containsB⇢(0)⇥(W+x0) which is a neighbourhood of (0, x0).
Suppose 06= 0 and take = min{⇢,| 0|}. ThenIm((B (0) + 0)⇥ (| 0| 1W +x0))={ | 0| 1y+ x0+ 0| 0| 1y+ x0 : 2B (0), y2W}. As 2 B (0), ⇢ and W is absorbing, x0 2 W. Also since 8 2 B (0) the modulus of | 0| 1 and 0| 0| 1 are both 1 and since W is balanced, we have | 0| 1W, 0| 0| 1W ⇢ W. Thus Im(B (0) +
0⇥(| 0| 1W +x0)) ⇢ W +W +W + 0x0 ⇢ U + 0x0 and so the preimage of U + 0x0 under the scalar multiplication contains B (0) +
0⇥(| 0| 1W +x0) which is a neighbourhood of ( 0, x0).
Let us show some further useful properties of the t.v.s.:
Proposition 2.1.15.
1. Every linear subspace of a t.v.s. endowed with the correspondent subspace topology is itself a t.v.s..
2. The closure H of a linear subspace H of a t.v.s. X is again a linear subspace of X.
3. Let X, Y be two t.v.s. and f :X! Y a linear map. f is continuous if and only if f is continuous at the origin o.
2. Topological Vector Spaces
Proof.
1. This clearly follows by the fact that the addition and the multiplication restricted to the subspace are just a composition of continuous maps (recall that inclusion is continuous in the subspace topology c.f. Defini- tion 1.1.19).
2. Let x0, y0 2 H and take any U 2 F(o). By Theorem 2.1.10-2, there existsV 2F(o) s.t. V +V ⇢U. Then, by definition of closure points, there existx, y2H s.t. x2V+x0andy2V+y0. Therefore,x+y2H (sinceHis a linear subspace) andx+y2(V+x0)+(V+y0)⇢U+x0+y0. Hence, x0+y0 2H. Similarly, one can prove that if x0 2H, x0 2 H for any 2K.
3. Assume thatf is continuous ato2X and fix anyx6=oinX. Let U be an arbitrary neighbourhood of f(x)2 Y. By Corollary2.1.9, we know that U = f(x) +V where V is a neighbourhood of o 2 Y. Since f is linear we have that: f 1(U) = f 1(f(x) +V) x+f 1(V). By the continuity at the origin of X, we know thatf 1(V) is a neighbourhood of o2X and so x+f 1(V) is a neighbourhood of x2X.
2.2 Hausdor↵ topological vector spaces
For convenience let us recall here the definition of Hausdor↵ space already given in Chapter 1 (see Definition1.1.40).
Definition 2.2.1. A topological space X is said to be Hausdor↵ or (T2) if any two distinct points of X have neighbourhoods without common points; or equivalently if two distinct points always lie in disjoint open sets.
In Proposition 1.1.41, we proved that in a Hausdor↵ space, any set con- sisting of a single point is closed but there are topological spaces having this property which are not Hausdor↵(c.f. Example 1.1.42-4) and we will see in this section that such spaces are not t.v.s..
Definition 2.2.2. A topological space X is said to be (T1) if, given two distinct points of X, each lies in a neighborhood which does not contain the other point; or equivalently if, for any two distinct points, each of them lies in an open subset which does not contain the other point.
It is easy to see that a topological space is (T1) if and only if every singleton is closed (Exercise Sheet 2).
From the definition it is clear that (T2) implies (T1) but in general the inverse does not hold (c.f. Example 1.1.42-4 for an example of topological
space which is (T1) but not (T2)). However, the following result shows that for a t.v.s these two properties are always equivalent.
Proposition 2.2.3. A t.v.s. X is Hausdor↵i↵
8o6=x2X, 9U 2F(o)s.t. x /2U. (2.1) Since the topology of a t.v.s. is translation invariant then the previous proposition guarantees thata t.v.s is Hausdor↵ i↵ it is (T1).
Proof.
()) Let (X,⌧) be Hausdor↵. Then for anyo6=x2Xthere existU 2F(o) and V 2F(x) s.t. U \V = ;. This means in particular that x /2 U and so (2.1) holds.
(() Assume that (2.1) holds and let x, y2X withx6=y, i.e. x y 6=o.
Then there exists U 2F(o) s.t. x y /2U. By (2) and (5) of Theorem2.1.10, there exists V 2 F(o) balanced and s.t. V +V ⇢ U. Since V is balanced V = V then we haveV V ⇢U. Suppose now that (V +x)\(V +y)6=;, then there exists z 2 (V +x)\(V +y), i.e. z = v+x = w+y for some v, w 2 V. Then x y = w v 2 V V ⇢ U and so x y 2 U which is a contradiction. Hence, (V +x)\(V +y) =; and by Corollary2.1.9we know that V +x2F(x) and V +y2F(y). Hence, X is (T2).
Corollary 2.2.4. For a t.v.s. X the following are equivalent:
a) X is Hausdor↵.
b) {o} is closed.
c) the intersection of all neighbourhoods of the origin o is just {o}.
Note that in a t.v.s. {o} is closed is equivalent to say that all singletons are closed and so that the space is (T1).
Proof.
a)) b) LetX be a Hausdor↵space. Then by Proposition 1.1.41we know that all singletons are closed subsets of X and in particular b) holds. (Note that this implication holds independently of the assumption thatXis a t.v.s..)
b)) c) Since X is a t.v.s., we have that T
U2F(o)U = {o} (see Exercise Sheet 2). Combining this with b), i.e. {o}={o}, we get c).
c)) a) Assume that the t.v.s. X is not Hausdor↵. Then, by Proposi- tion 2.2.3, we get that (2.1) does not hold, i.e. 9o6=x2X s.t.x2U,8U 2 F(o). This means that x 2 T
U2F(o)
U (c)= {o} and so x = 0 which is a contra- diction.
