THE IMPACT OF HUNTING
ON VICTORIA CROWNED PIGEON (Goura victoria: COLUMBIDAE) IN THE RAINFORESTS OF NORTHERN PAPUA, INDONESIA
Dissertation
for the award of degree of
“Doctor rerum naturalium” (Dr.rer.nat) within the doctoral program biology
of the Georg-August University School of Science (GAUSS)
Submitted by
Henderina Josefina Keiluhu
Born in Sumbawa Besar-West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia
Göttingen, 2013
ii Thesis Committee
Prof. Dr. M. Mühlenberg
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology Prof. Dr. R. Willmann
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology Members of the Examination Board
Reviewer: Prof. Dr. M. Mühlenberg
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology Second Reviewer: Prof. Dr. R. Willmann
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology Further members of the Examination Board
Prof. Dr. C. Leuschner Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences Prof. Dr. E. Bergmeier
Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences Prof. Dr. H. Behling
Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences PD. Dr. T. Hörnschemeyer
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology
Place and date of the oral examination: Computer Room, Department of
Conservation Biology, Center for Nature Conservation, Bürgerstrasse 50, 37073 Goettingen; October 30th, 2013 at 11.15 pm
iii Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to my supervisor Prof. Dr. M. Mühlenberg, Department of Conservation Biology, Georg-August University of Goettingen for enhancement my concepts about nature conservation. I also thank Prof. Dr. R.
Willmann for being my second supervisor, and to Dr. Richard Noske for the valuable tutorial during proposal writing.
The Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) contributed generous financial support for my study. The Head of Education and Teaching Agency of Papua Province on behalf of Governor of Papua Province also provided the financial support for my field research and for finishing my study.
I extend my gratitude and great appreciation to all friends who helped me during this study, thank you very much for all the friendships, supports and togetherness. Particularly, I would like to express my grateful thanks to Dr. M.
Pangau-Adam for her advice, assistance and patience.
In this moment, I want to give my gratitude, appreciation and pride to my Mom and Dad (†), my brother (†) and sisters with their families, for always supporting me with love and encouraging me to do the best in my life, these feelings are never enough to say to all of you. Moreover, I extend truthful gratitude for Lewaherila Big Family, for all attention, kindness for being with my children and my husband during this study.
Finally, I express my sincere gratitude to my beloved husband Markus P.
Lewaherila, and our children Bryan and Charlie, for their smiles and laughs, their endless love and everlasting encouragement and also for all understanding, sacrifice and praying. I want to say a deep apologize because I already left you all in Papua to pursue a doctorate degree in Germany.
Above all many grateful thanks to my Lord Jesus Christ: Who always gives a way where there seems to be no way.
Henderina J. Keiluhu
iv Summary
Victoria crowned pigeon (Goura victoria) is an endemic bird and has been declared as protected species by Indonesian Government under Law Act No.
301/1991. This species with two other species of Goura (crowned pigeon) are endemic to New Guinea islands, and have been state as Restricted Range Species.
IUCN Red List also has verified the entitre genus of Goura as the largest-body sized of pigeon in the world with status of vulnerable species due to hunting problems, beside listed on Appendix II of CITES as well.
The workshop on Priority-Setting of Biodiversity Conservation in Papua has launched that the major threats on this bird included the large-scale forest conversion for logging, swidden-agriculture, plantation, transmigration, and settlement, also hunting and illegal trading. Local communities in Papua have been practicing hunting on wildlife especially on bird for subsistence, though it is moving towards commercial activities in some regions recently. Since hunting becomes the main threat to Goura spp, it is important to conduct a field study on the impact of hunting on Victoria crowned pigeon in tropical rainforests of the northern area in Papua-Indonesia.
The published information on hunting activity and its impact are very limited, as well as the lack data on Victoria crowned pigeon population in its natural habitat in the northern Papua. More over, information on tree communities and vegetation structure in the habitat of Victoria crowned pigeon in this region is still very inadequate. Based on these conditions, it becomes very important to carry out such a research focusing on hunting practice, population of Goura victoria, and forest structure in the northern of Papua.
The main aim of this study was to assess the impact of hunting on the population of Victoria crowned pigeon in the rainforests in Papua. The current research is intended to contribute the conservation action of Victoria crowned pigeon in the future. The specific aims of this study includes to investigate forest structure in four different areas inhabited by G.victoria and to estimate the population size and density of Victoria crowned pigeon in four different forest areas in northern Papua; The other aims of the study are to compare the population size of G.victoria in the given areas; to describe the activity of the
v bird’s hunters and their impact on the population of G.victoria in those forest areas and to create and increase awareness of the local people for the conservation of Victoria crowned pigeon.
The study was concentrated in forests of four different regencies in the northern part of the Papua Province, which are forest of Buare (Mamberamo Raya), Supiori (Supiori), Unurumguay (Jayapura), and Bonggo forest (Sarmi).
The detailed observations on population density on Goura victoria, composition and forest structure, also on hunting activity by local people, and its impacts on the population of Victoria crowned pigeon were conducted in those forest areas.
Buare and Supiori forests are the parts of nature reserve become forest area with lower interference of local people activity compared with higher interference and pressures in Unurumguay and Bonggo forests.
In each study site, as many as 25 randomly long lines transects for vegetation analysis of 20 x 100 meters with 20 m x 20 m plots were established for vegetation analysis. Measurement and identification within each plot were taken on each tree with a diameter at breast high more than 10 cm and more than a meter height. Furthermore, floristic structure was assessed quantitatively by calculating the Important Value Index (IVI) for each species in each study site.
The IVI represents the sums of the value of Relative Density (RD), Relative frequency (RF) and Relative Dominance (RDo). Goura surveys were carried out at four sites using line transect method and 45 transects were set aside in all study sites. The researcher walked along the transect line and recorded the perpendicular distance between detection points and transect line. Surveys were done four days per week, between 06.00 in the morning to 16.00 in the afternoon each day by the field team. The semi structural interviews with questionnaires were used and the interviews were conducted on 151 respondents who live in 13 villages of four districts in four regencies. Important Value Index (IVI) and Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’) were used to calculate the floristic composition and forest structure in each study site. Distance 5.0 release 2.0 program was used to estimate the population density and population of Victoria crowned pigeon. The Mann Whitney U test, Kruskall-Wallis test and Multiple Linier Regression Analysis using SPSS version 19.00 were used to illustrate the hunting activity by
vi local people and predict the impact of hunting by local people to Goura victoria population. Then, the estimation of maximum sustainable annual harvest was compared to the value of maximum current annual harvest. Hunting practice on Goura victoria is unsustainable if the value of maximum current annual harvest exceeds the value of maximum sustainable annual harvest. All data analysis was processed using Excel program.
Floristc composition in each study sites showed that the 58 species in 38 families in Buare and 57 species in 38 families were found in Supiori. These were quite different with 39 species in 25 families found in Unurumguay and 34 species in 22 families found in Bonggo, The tree diversity in each study site also varied, showed as H’= 3.55 in Buare forest, 3.45 in Supiori, 3.09 in Unurumguay and 3,00 in Bonggo. Although the diversity in Buare seems more diverse than that in other sites, it is statistically not significant, because the values of H’ of all study sites are in the range between 1– 4.5. The seven most dominant tree species based on the Important Value Index were varied between study sites. These species belong to different families, with Euphorbiaceae family as the most common family encountered in all study sites. The results showed that Pimeliodendron amboinicum Hassk become dominant tree species in forest area of Buare, Supiori and Unurumguay, while Pometia spp. (Pometia pinnata and Pometia sp.) dominated forest area in Buare, Unurumguay and Bonggo. Likewise, the measurements of diameter at breast height and tree height class distribution were used to describe structural composition of forest area in each study site. This result shows that about 80% of vegetation in all study sites was represented by trees with diameter at breast height less than 30 cm and Bonggo area has trees with small diameter and already loss the large trees. Trees from all diameter class in other three locations had descending trend quantity from small to big diameter, while all study sites showed similar forest structure in distribution of trees height.
Population size of Goura victoria was varied, which depends on the size of hunting area with higher value of estimation on population density but has the least value population size of Goura victoria.
vii The interviews with Papuan hunters about hunting practices showed that distance of hunting area, hunting using air gun, using dogs and using foot snares on hunting Victoria crowned pigeon were varied among each study sites.
Hunters in Buare area prefer to hunt Goura victoria within the distance of less than 2 - 5 km, while mostly hunters in three other sites prefer to hunt Goura victoria within the distance of 3 km to more than 5 km. The used of air gun in Buare area, was not recorded, while in the three other study sites it was more common though in low level, not more than 22% of all hunting practices. Using dogs in hunting Goura victoria also occurred less frequent in all study sites, only about 12%. Hunters in all study sites tended to use foot snares in catching G.victoria. However, the estimation value of current annual harvest within the hunting area size for each study sites exceed from the allowable values on estimation of maximum sustainable annual harvest per each hunting area size.
Goura’s hunting is already prohibited not only in Indonesia, but also in Papua New Guinea. Goura victoria as a high-valued bird, is mainly sold alive and usually being hunted for fresh money to fulfill daily needs of hunter’s family.
Hunting activities in all study sites were relatively high compared to other areas of Papua, an example from hunting of G.victoria in Waropen showed the high frequency of hunting activity. Hunting activity on Victoria crowned pigeon’s was unsustainable and this practice by local people has negative effects of G.victoria population, although most of hunters using foot snares.
The result from ths study showed that protection of Victoria crowned pigeon needs deep concern from the Governments. The related stakeholders should enhance and determine conservation areas with the factual boundaries, including protected forest, animal sanctuaries and nature reserves. It also necessary to establish and manage more buffer zones around protected area immediately, to reduce interference from local people. Papuan people need more socialization of the laws and regulations concerning wildlife protection. The law enforcements should be implemented together with strict sanctions. Further research on Goura victoria should be carried out on other part of northern Papua, including short and long terms in all ecological aspects of Goura victoria.
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments iii
Summary iv
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
List of Appendix xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Objectives of the study 3
CHAPTER 2: GENERAL REVIEW ON Goura victoria 8
2.1 Biology of Genus Goura 8
2.1.1 The sistematics of Genus Goura 8
2.1.2 The Distribution of Genus Goura 9
2.2. General Morphology of Genus Goura 12
2.2.1 The Common Crowned Pigeon (Goura cristata,
Pallas 1764) 12
2.2.2 The Victoria Crowned Pigeon (Goura victoria, Fraser, 1844) 13 2.2.3 The Scheepmakeri’s Crowned Pigeon (Goura scheepmakeri,
Finc, 1876) 14
2.3. Literature Reviews on Goura Ecology 15
CHAPTER 3: METHODS 19
3.1. Study area 19
3.1.1 Papua Provinces 19
3.1.2 Research locations 20
3.1.2.1 District of Mamberamo Tengah-Mamberamo
Raya 21
3.1.2.2 District of Unurumguay-Jayapura Regency 22
ix 3.1.2.3 District of Bonggo-Sarmi Regency 24 3.1.2.4 District of Supiori Utara-Supiori Regency 26
3.2. Data collection and data analysis 28
3.2.1 Time table of data collection 28
3.2.2 Habitat parameter 28
3.2.3 Population of Goura victoria 29
3.2.4 Hunting activity by local people 29
3.2.5 Estimation of the sustainable harvest of Goura victoria 31
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 33
4.1 Floristric composition and structural composition of forest
in each study site 33
4.1.1 Floristic composition 33
4.1.2 Forest structure composition 36
4.2 Estimation ondensity and population of Goura victoria 37
4.3 Hunting activity of Papuan hunters 39
4.3.1 Status of hunters 40
4.3.2 Traditional rules towards hunting Goura victoria 40
4.3.3 Protection of Goura victoria 42
4.3.4 Hunting attributes 42
4.3.5 Goura victoria and other hunted animals 45
4.3.6 The use of meat of Goura victoria 48
4.3.7 Relationship between numbers of Goura victoria caught by Papuan hunters in each study sites with the variables
of hunting practice 49
4.3.8 Estimation of sustainability in harvesting Goura victoria 53
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 55
5.1 Forest area as Goura victoria habitat 55
5.2 The population of Goura victoria in each study site 60 5.3 Hunting of Goura victoria by Papuan people 63 5.3.1 Hunting activities in Papua-Indonesia 63
x 5.3.2 Traditional knowledge of Papuan peoples in hunting 69
5.3.3 Hunting attributes 72
5.3.4 Utilized of Goura victoria 76
5.4 Impact of traditional hunting activity on Goura victoria population 78 5.5 Participation of local community in Goura victoria conservation on
indigenous knowledge basis 82
5.6 Conservation status of Goura victoria 87
5.6.1 The role of habitat structure 87
5.6.2 Conservation assessment of Goura victoria 88 5.7 Recommendation for conservation on Goura victoria 90
5.8 Application of the methods 92
5.8.1 Assessing of wildlife methods 92
5.8.2 Assessing of hunting sustainability 93
5.8.3 Questionnaire survey 94
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 96
REFERENCES 98
APPENDICES 120
xi List of Tables
Table 3.1 The position of the seven villages on the District of Bonggo
-Sarmi Regency 24
Table 3.2 The villages, individual surveyed, indigenous communities surveyed and belief system where the surveyed were
undertaken 30
Table 4.1 The value of Relative Density (RD), Relative Frequency (RF) Relative Dominance (RDo) and Important Value Index (IVI) in
each study site 33
Table 4.2 The seven most dominant species of tree on each study site 35 Table 4.3 The estimation of population density of G.victoria in each study
site 38
Table 4.4 Characteristics of hunters and hunting system in each study site 39 Table 4.5 List of taboo and ban rules on hunting found in study area 41 Table 4.6 Responses from Papuan hunter in each study site for the
ban rules and taboo on hunting 41
Table 4.7 List of animal reported, captured and /or consumed by hunters
from study area 46
Table 4.8 Selling price of G.victoria in each study site 49 Table 4.9 The relation ship between number of captured G.victoria and six
hunting variables in Buare site 50
Table 4.10 The relationship between number of captured G.victoria and six
hunting variables in Supiori site 50
Table 4.11 The relationship between number of captured G.victoria and six
hunting variables in Unurumguay site 51
Table 4.12 The relationship between number of captured G.victoria and six
hunting variables in Bonggo site 51
Table 4.13 Result of analysis of variance test on regression analysis between five hunting variables and number of captured G.victoria in each
study site 52
Table 4.14 The result of multiple linier regression on number of captured G.victoria (Y) with five hunting variables (X) in each study site 52 Table 4.15 Demographic information from captivity and literature of
G.victoria 53
Table 4.16 Estimation of maxmum annual production at this density whitin hunting area size Pmax(D), estimation of
maximum sustainable annual harvest levels within hunting area size and estimation of current annual harvest within the hunting area size for G.victoria in each study site 54
xii List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Distribution map of three species of Genus Goura in New
Guinea Island (Source: Pratt 1982 4
Figure 2.1 Goura cristata, G. victoria and G.scheepmakeri (Source: Coates
And Peckover 2001) 9
Figure 2.2 Distribution map of tree species of Genus Goura in Papua-
Indonesia (created by H.Suhendy in Bird Life 2012) 10 Figure 3.1 Map of Papua Province (Source: http://Papua.bps.go.id 18 Figure 3.2 Map of the northern of Papua Province and the location of
study site 20
Figure 3.3 Endemic Bird Area in lowland of northern Papua-Indonesia (Source:http://burung.org/Daerah-Burung-Endemik/176-
Dataran-rendah-di-bagian-utara-papua.html) 25 Figure 3.4 Endemic Bird Area in lowland of northern Papua-Indonesia
(Source:http://burung.og/Daerah-Burung-Endemik/174-
Biak-Numfor.html) 27
Figure 4.1 Percentage of trees species in each study site 33 Figure 4.2 Variance of plant Diversity Index between study sites (based on
t-test, *=significant, ns= no significance) 34 Figure 4.3 Distributon of trees in diameter at breas height classes in each
study site 36
Figure 4.4 Distributionof trees in height classes in each study site 36 Figure 4.5 Density estimation of G.victoria in each study site (±SE:
Standart Error) 37
Figure 4.6 Variance of population density of G.victoria in each study site
(*= significant, ns= no significant) 38
Figure 4.7 Age classes of hunters in all study sites 40 Figure 4.8 The attitude of protecting G.victoria in each study site 42 Figure 4.9 Hunting methods used by Papuan hunters 43 Figure 4.10 Frequency of hunting G.victoria by the Papuan hunters in each
study site 44
Figure 4.11 Time preffered of Papuan hunters to hunt G.victoria in each
study site 44
Figure 4.12 Distance to hunt G.victoria by the Papuan hunters 45 Figure 4.13 Hunter group size in each study site 45 Figure 4.14 Level of difficulty when hunting G.victoria in each study site 47 Figure 4.15 Achievement of hunting G.victoria per one time hunting in eac
study site 47
Figure 4.16 Number of G.victoria caught by the hunters in each study site 48 Figure 4.17 Level of G.victoria meat consumption in each study site 48
xiii List of Appendices
A1 Table of tree species in forest of Buare site 120 A2 Table of tree species in forest of Supiori site 122 A3 Table of tree species in forest of Unurumguay site 124 A4 Table of tree species in forest of Bonggo site 126 A5 Table of plants genera were recorded as the diets of frugiforous birds
(include the family Columbidae) and non speciealist (based on Snow 1981 and Frith et al 1976) in each study site 127 A6 Table of forest area size based on type of forest cover of Papua
Province (km2) 129
A7 Red list category and criteria of Victoria Crowned Pigeon
(G.victoria) 130
A8 Table of abbreviations 131
A9 Curriculum vitae 132
1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Indonesia is known as one of the richest biodiversity countries in the world, with the most complex ecosystems (Petocz 1987). The country covers only 1.3%
area of the globe, but it possesses about 10% species of flowering plants, 12% of mammals, 16% of reptiles and amphibians, 17% of birds and 35% of fishes from whole species in the world (BAPPENAS 2003).
New Guinea Island is the second largest island in the world and known as the largest between all tropical islands. This island is accounted amongst the richest biodiversity areas and has the most diverse assemblage of ecosystems on the earth. New Guinea consists of one big island with some small satellite islands, and administratively belongs to Papua-Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (mentioned further as PNG). Papua is biogeographically a part of Melanesia region and has already been stated as priority tropical forest area. Conservation International (1997) declared New Guinea as “Major Tropical Wilderness Area”
(Supriatna 1997). Concerning bird diversity, New Guinea has approximately 831 species or represents around 8.6% of the birds in the world, while Papua, Indonesia has approximately 657 bird species or 6.8% of the total birds in the world (Mack and Dumbacher 2007), and 25% of the total bird species in Indonesia (Petocz 1987). In addition, Bird Life International has been identified about 140 Endemic Bird Area’s (EBA) worldwide, and eight of EBA sites were located in Papua (Sudjatnika et al 1995). Furthermore, Mack and Dumbacher (2007) stated that family Columbidae in Papua has the richest species rate, 42 species out of 309 species worldwide.
The percentage of endemic birds in Papua is higher than in other areas in Indonesia, and these birds are mainly dispersed into five nature conservation areas (Petocz, 1987). These conservation areas include Arfak Mountains with a total of 278 bird species, Tamrau Mountains 146 species, Lorentz Mountains 130 species, Mamberamo region 191 species, and Wasur areas 74 species.
Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) is the largest, but least-developed province of Indonesia. Although there is a great lack of biological data for Papua compared
2 with the other half-eastern part of New Guinea (PNG), it has been estimated that the province has around 50% of Indonesia’s biodiversity (Supriatna 1997, 2008).
Until 1984 Papua-Indonesia had escaped the devastating extent of deforestation that strikes other part of Indonesia and South-East Asia (Anggraeni 2007). However, the forest area in Papua decreased in 1993-1997 from 90% to 80% of the total area of the Island (Supriatna 1997). Moreover, the rate of forest conversion increases constantly since Indonesia’s recent economic crisis (Richards and Suryadi 2002). Nowadays, loss of habitats and forest fragmentations due to logging, plantation, transmigration, cultivation, mining, oil and gas extractions, and rapid development of settlements and roads result in threats on Papua’s unique biological heritage (Richards and Suryadi 2002). Other development projects such as the expansion of oil palm plantations become a seriously menace to the existence of tropical lowland forest in Papua (Smolker et al 2008, Samuelson 2008).
Papua is also a home to more than 250 different ethnic groups, each with their own rich culture, tradition, language and sets of interrelationships with their environment (Petocz 1987, Supriatna 2008). Indigenous people have already a long history of subsistence in hunting, fishing and cultivation systems. Shifting cultivation system has occurred for about 5,000 years in Papua and hunting activity has known since 3,500 years ago (Hope 2007). People living in the lowlands and swamp areas traditionally rely heavily on sago, while highland people practice rotational cultivation system of bulb and root crops mainly on taro and sweet potatoes. Pigs are raised as source of protein, but additionally the people preferred hunting wild pigs, along with other wild animals from the forest (Petocz 1987, Boissière et al 2007).
Hunting is a major activity of indigenous people in Papua, yet there is no quantified studies undertaken on the impact of hunting on wild animal. Usually hunting is practiced in subsistence manner, and commercial hunting occurs only at a small scale or in the heavily capitalized region (Bennett and Robinson 2000a).
Hunting might also be carried out only for cultural occasion or recreational reasons. The meat from hunted animals could be distributed within the community or might be sold in local marketplace (Pangau-Adam and Noske 2010, Pangau-
3 Adam et al 2012). In many hunting studies, however, the distinctions between hunting for subsistence and for commercial purpose are rarely clear (Dwyer and Minegal 1991, Pangau-Adam and Noske 2010, Pangau-Adam et al 2012, Aiyadurai et al 2010, Aiyadurai 2011, Bennett and Robinson 2000a, Lee 2000, O’Brien and Kinnaird 2000). Bennett and Robinson (2000a) and Mansoben (2005) stated that it is essential to understand the cultural and socioeconomic context, and to collect accurate information on hunting and its effects, in order to determine the sustainability of this practice.
Ground-dwelling crowned pigeon (Goura victoria) is an endemic bird species which is declared as protected species by Indonesian Government (Law Act No. 301/1991). All three species of Goura (crowned pigeon) are on the status of Restricted Range Species and endemic to New Guinea and its satellite islands (Rand 1938, Beehler et al 1986, Andrew 1992). Furthermore, the entire genus Goura as the largest pigeon in the worlds has been verified by IUCN Red List as vulnerable species due to hunting problems (Collar et al, 1994; IUCN 2011), and also listed on Appendix II of CITES (Statterfields et al, 1998).
The workshop on Priority-Setting of Biodiversity Conservation in Papua held in 1997 has founded that the major threats on this bird were the large-scale forest conversion for logging, swidden agriculture and plantation, transmigration, settlement, hunting and illegal trading (Supriatna 1997). Hunting on wildlife especially bird species in Papua has been practiced by the local communities for subsistence, but in some regions it is recently moving towards the commercial activities (Pangau-Adam, 2010, Suryadi et al 2007, Mahuse 2006, Sada 2005).
Because hunting is amongst the main threats to Goura spp, it is due importance to conduct the field study on the impact of hunting on Goura victoria in the tropical lowland rainforests of the northern Papua-Indonesia.
1.2. Objectives of the study
There are only three species in the genus Goura (crowned pigeons) and all are endemic to New Guinea. Goura cristata inhabits lowland area of the Bird’s head and Bird’s neck, Goura scheepmakeri inhabits southern lowlands, and Goura
4 victoria inhabits the lowland areas of the northern New Guinea (see the distribution map in figure 1.1) below.
Figure 1.1 Distribution map of three species of Genus Goura in New Guinea (Source: Pratt 1982)
All Goura species play an important role in the traditions and daily life of the indigenous people in Papua. These birds are among the target animals of wildlife hunting. There is still very little published data on the hunting activity and its impact, as well as lack of data on Goura population in its natural habitat in the northern Papua. The only reports on Goura population are those from King and Nijboer (1994) and Bird Life International (2012). On the other hand, information on tree communities and vegetation structure of Goura habitat in this region is still very limited, although a rapid assessment had been conducted in Mamberamo area (Richards and Suryadi 2002). Based on these considerations, it is important to conduct such a research with focus on hunting practice, population of G.victoria, and forest structure in the northern Papua.
The main aim of the study is to assess the impact of hunting on the population of G.victoria in the lowland rainforests in Papua. The current research is intended to contribute into conservation action of G.victoria in the future.
The specific aims of this study include (1) To investigate the forest structure in four different areas inhabited by G.victoria; (2) To estimate the population size and density of G.victoria in four different forest areas in northern Papua; (3) To compare the population size of G.victoria in four different forest areas; (4) To describe the activity of the bird’s hunters and their impact on the population of
5 G.victoria in four different areas and (5) To create and increase awareness of the Papuan people to conserve G.victoria.
In the last two decades, the increase of forest degradation in the northern Papua occurred due to the people activities such as illegal logging, illegal wildlife hunting, collecting and trading forest products (Jepson et al 2011, Suryadi et al 2007). The Special Autonomy Laws ratified in 2001 has lead the natural utilization to increased forest conversion into various development purposes, such as new districts, regencies, roads, resettlements, and the establishment of vast area for oil-palm plantations (Smolker et al, 2008; Samuelson, 2008). Furthermore, illegal logging and other forest conversion may facilitate hunters to reach the remote forest areas (Wilkie 1989, Kinnaird et al 2003, Miranda et al 2003, Suryadi et al 2007, Frazier 2007)
Studies about wildlife hunting have been carried out in some tropical regions in the world. In African forest for instance, individual hunter primarily hunt the wild animals to eat and sell the captured animals (van Vlieth and Nasi 2008). Mammals have become the main source of bushmeat protein throughout Africa (Fa and Brown 2009), for example hunting on duikers in Guinea, West- Central Africa (Pailler et al 2009). Moreover birds are also hunted in other parts of Africa for sport, cash or subsistence (Waltert et al 2010, Thiollay 2005, Hart and Upoki 1997). In the Neotropic regions, hunters commonly harvest many species of wildlife animal like tapir, brocket deer, armadillos, agoutis and several species of birds (Bodmer et al 1995 and 1997, Peres 2000, Mena et al 2000).
The Amazonian hunters also hunted birds, especially the big-size birds such as Great Tinamous, Great Curassow and Crested Guan (Smith 2005, Peres 2000, Mena et al 2000, Begazo and Bodmer 1998). In Indonesia, hunting of wildlife animals has been widely noted, for instance hunting on Bornean peacock-pheasant in Borneo (O’Brien et al 1998) and large birds and mammals in the North Sulawesi (O’Brien and Kinnaird 1996 and 2000, Lee 2000, Alvard 2000). Related to sustainable hunting, current subsistence hunting and commercial hunting in different tropical regions are tend to be unsustainable (Noss 2000, Begazo and Bodmer 1998, O’Brien and Kinnaird 2000, Lee 2000, Alvard 2000, Robinson and Redford 1994).
6 Deforestation along with hunting practice raised some critical questions related to the sustainability: how is the current population of G.victoria in lowland forest of the northern Papua? Can G.victoria survive in different habitats? Does the traditional hunting for wild meat consumption lead to reduce Goura population? In order to answer these questions, it is very important to study the population density, forest habitat condition and hunting on the G.victoria.
The first question about the population of G.victoria emphasizes that we have insufficient data and information on the current population size of this species. The data on population status of Goura is very limited, and the only record stated that there are about 2,500 to 9,999 individuals inhabit the lowland forest in the northern Papua, with decreasing population trend (Bird Life International 2012). Headed for answering the question and obtaining preliminary data about population density, the research on measuring Goura population become the right choice.
Second question is with regards to the habitat condition of G.victoria.
This bird species needs undisturbed habitat for nesting, foraging and breeding, but currently habitat disturbance and forest clearing for human needs are threatening the persistence of G.victoria. Reduction in forest area is leading to the decline and degradation of habitat area, and undoubtedly affects the population of the bird.
These activities should be concerned whether it might have a negative impact on Goura’s population size or not.
The third question is food gathering and hunting activities in the lowland forest. These are two activities that have been common for the traditional forest- dwellers in Papua. Goura victoria has become one favorable source of wild meat for the nutrition of hunter family (King and Nijboer 1994). Additionaly local people also use the feathers of G.victoria as a head decoration for traditional Papuan dancer (King and Nijboer 1994, Pattiselano and Mentansang 2010).
The entire questions and facts mentioned above are leading to the important issue concerning urgent conservation efforts for the endemic bird species, G.victoria, in lowland forest of the northern Papua. Forest degradation might frequently occur in the lowland forest, and also towards the forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries containing lowland forest. Habitat degradation and
7 unsustainable bird hunting may threaten the existence and persistence of population of G.victoria. It is expected that the information on population density, combined with an analysis on habitat that utilized by this species, and the information on traditional hunting activities can lead to the comprehensive output about conservation status of G.victoria in Papua.
8 CHAPTER 2: GENERAL REVIEW ON Goura victoria
2.1. Biology of Genus Goura
2.1.1. Systematics of the Genus Goura
Order of Columbiformes is composed by three families: the sandgrouse (Pteroclidadae), the dodos (Rhapidae), and the pigeons (Columbidae), but Family Rhapinae was already extinct during the 17-18th centuries (Harrison in Nijboer &
Damen 2000). Family Columbidae consists of 5 subfamilies with 42 genera, 749 taxa and about 309 species totally (Baptista et al 1997). Gibbs et al (2001) discovered that Columbidae consists of 5 families with 42 genera and around 316 species, slightly different from Beehler et al (1986) which stated that Columbidae consists of around 299 species.
The species of Columbidae are distributed widely and can be found all over the world except in polar and sub-polar regions, in extremely hot and cold regions, and in dome oceanic islands. The term of Columbidae sometimes is used to characterize the birds based on the similarity of their size, typology and ecology, but it is inconsistently used and not based on any real biological dissimilarity (Goodwin 1983 and Beehler et al 1986). Gibbs et al (2001) classified pigeon and dove based on the size. Pigeon generally refers to the larger species while dove to the smaller and more elegant species. Additionally, the term pigeon and dove are somewhat interchangeable. Both groups are unique among other birds in Columbidae due to their production of “crop milk” that is secreted by sloughing of fluid-filled cells from their crop layer (Perrins 2009, Baptista et al 1997). In these groups, both male and female can produce this highly nutritious substance to feed their juveniles (Beehler et al 1986: Baptista et al 1997).
The Gourinae is one of the subfamilies in Columbidae that contains only the three species of Crowned Pigeons. The other subfamilies are Columbinae (the typical seed-eating pigeons), Treroninae (the fruit-eating pigeons and fruit-eating doves), Otidiphabinae (the pheasant pigeon), and Didunculinae (the tooth-billed pigeon) as the largest subfamily among the order of Columbiformes (Goodwin, 1983, Baptista et al 1997 and Gibbs et al 2001). Sub-family Gourinae consist of one genera, and genus Goura comprises three species, Goura cristata, Goura
9 scheepmakeri and Goura victoria (Beehler et al 1986, Baptitsta et al 1997, Nijboer and Damen 2000, Gibbs et al 2001). Every species consists of two sub- species, Goura cristata cristata, Pallas 1764; Goura cristata minor, Schlegel 1864; Goura scheepmakeri scheepmakeri, Finch 1876; Goura scheepmakeri sclaterii, Salvadori 1876; Goura victoria victoria, Fraser 1876 and Goura victoria beccarii, Salvadori 1876.
2.1.2. The Distribution of Genus Goura
All species of Crowned Pigeons are similar and geographically interchangeable each other (Figure 2.1). The three species are also very closely related, and inhabit only in New Guinea and its satellite islands (Peckover and Filewood 1976; Beehler et al 1986). Their distribution is mainly allopatric, but two of this species (G.cristata and G.victoria) usually meet and hybridize naturally in the Siriwo River at the tip of Cenderawasih Bay on the north-west of New Guinea (figure 2.1 and figure 2.2, Beehler et al 1986; Goodwin, 1977;
Baptista et al 1997). In regard to the distribution and evolution, there is a theory stated that many rainforest birds was the product from isolation of forest refugees during the Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene era (Haffer 1969 and 1974 in Pratt 1982). This theory also emphasized that the isolation in remnant forest tracts had divided the widespread population of forest birds into discrete fragmentary populations (Haffer 1969 and 1974 in Pratt 1982). Some of these populations were then be able to differentiate as new subspecies or species (Mayr 1963 in Pratt 1982).
Figure 2.1 Goura cristata, Goura victoria and Goura scheepmakeri (Note: from left to the right, source: Coates and Peckover, 2001)
10 Additionally, in the case of Crowned pigeon, the distribution might become evidence of the distribution of allopatric and parapatric species, and also as the result of ecological compatibility and geographic isolation, though their range might be similar to the case of parapatric species (Haffer 1969 and 1974 in Pratt 1982).
Figure 2.2 Distribution map of three species of genus Goura in Papua-Indonesia (Created by H. Suhendy base on Birdlife 2001)
In particular, G.cristata inhabits flat lowland forest, usually in undisturbed alluvial forests (Beehler et al 1986). These area including the marshes and seasonal flooded area from the north western of New Guinea, until the Etna Bay (on the west of New Guinea’ south coast) to the point where the Siriwo Rivers flow into the Geelvink Bay (at the coast in the north of New Guinea) (Rand and Giliard 1967). This part is called the Vogelkop or formerly called Arfak or Berau Peninsula (Gyldenstolpe 1956 in Nijboer and Damen 2000), and also Onin Peninsula. This was the area where G.cristata was detected hybridized with the G.victoria (Beehler et al 1986). Furthermore, G.cristata also is recorded at some islands close to the coast, like Misool, Salawati, Batanta and Waigeo Island (Rand and Gilliard, 1967; Beehler et al 1986; King and Nijboer 1994) and Seram Islands, Moluccas where it could probably be imported (Kitchener et al 1993).
11 Goura cristata can be found from sea level to around 110-150 above sea level (Beehler et al 1986, Baptista et al 1997). This species was also reported from the Moluccas Islands even it was considered as exotic to the islands (Iridale 1956). In spite of its exotic condition, the first record on this species by Pallas (1844) had specifically showed that the species came from Banda Island, Moluccas (Rothschild 1931 in Nijboer and Damen 2000). The size of this species in Moluccas Islands is generally smaller than its conspecifics from the mainland of Papua. Due to this size difference, some scientists distinguished the G.cristata cristata on the mainland with the G.cristata minor from some islands (described by Schlegel in Rand and Gilliard, 1967). On the Misool Island, northwest Papua, an even smaller sub-species named G.cristata pygmaea was recorded as well (Mees 1965 in Nijboer and Damen 2000).
The second species in genus Goura is Goura victoria. This species has two subspecies; G.victoria victoria which its nominated form lives on the Biak Islands and Yapen Island (formerly called Jobi Island) although it might be introduced to the later (Rand and Gilliard 1967), and Goura victoria beccarii, which was named after an Italian explorer Beccarii, similar with the name of a hybrid from the Victoria Crowned Pigeon and Common Crowned Pigeon (Iridale, 1956). This subspecies can be found in forests on the mainland of the northern New Guinea, from Siriwo River (Geelvink Bay) in the west to the Astrolabe Bay or Milne Bay in the east (Beehler et al 1986), and at the western end of its range. It overlaps with the distribution of smaller Common Crowned Pigeon, Goura cristata (Peckover and Filewood 1976). G.victoria beccarii occupies swamps of sago forest and drier forests, found particularly in lowlands, but sometimes it might occurred up to 400-600 m above sea level like at Jimmy Valley (Baptista et al 1997). Another theory showed that this bird can be found at the nearby sea level only (Beehler et al 1986).
The third species of genus Goura is Goura scheepmakeri or Scheepmaker’s Crowned Pigeon. In body size, this is the largest species of crowned pigeons, with the height around 71-79 cm and weight about 2000-2235 g (Baptista et al 1997). The two subspecies of this species are the Hall Sound (Goura scheepmakeri scheepmakeri) and the sub-ordinate Goura scheepmakeri sclaterii.
12 The Hall Sound is distributed on Orengerie Bay (south-eastern part of New Guinea) and the sub-ordinate can be found between Mimika River and Fly River in the South of New Guinea (King and Nijboer 1994). The range of G.
scheepmakeri might be extended until Etna Bay (Beehler et al 1986), however it has not been recorded whether and where the two sub-species meet (Peckover and Filewood 1976).
2.2. General Morphology of Genus Goura
2.2.1. The Common Crowned Pigeon (Goura cristata Pallas 1764)
The Common Crowned Pigeon (Goura cristata) has many names, such as Western Crowned-Pigeon, Masked Goura, Masked Crowned-Pigeon, Grey Crowned-Pigeon, Blue Goura, Grey Goura (English), Goura couronne (French), Gura occidental (Spain) and in Germany as Krontaube (Beehler et al 1986;
Goodwin, 1983; and Baptista et al 1997).
In Papua Indonesia, this bird is recognized locally as ‘mambruk polos’ or
‘mambruk kelabu’, and also as ‘mambruk Ubiaat’ (Beehler et al 1986). This bird was discovered by Dampier in 1700 (Iridale 1956) and was firstly described scientifically by Pallas 1764 as Columba cristata (see Mc Moris 1976 in Nijboer and Damen 2000). Other names of this bird were G.coronata (Linnaeus in Nijboer & Damen 2000) and Goura cinerea (Hartert 1895 in Mayr, 1941), but
“G.cristata” is generally accepted recently.
Besides body features that are mentioned earlier, Common Crowned Pigeon also has a large blue “crown” on the head. Each of its wings has a small white spotted mark. This species is blue-greyish, with some paler grey part or creamy tinge on its breast. As for all Goura, this species has a well-built body with rather long and stout legs, equipped with a larger laterally-compressed crest of lacy feathers (Nijboer and Damen 2000). The upper part of the mantle and most wings are dark purplish red or dark wine red. This species is infinitely a subject to partial melanism and the individuals with varying or often extensive black where patch on around the head, back to upper tail-converts and belly to under tail- converts (Gibbs et al 2001). Melanism is the condition of increase on black or nearly black pigmentation of the feathers that seems to occur more frequently in
13 G.cristata minor than G. cristata cristata (Goodwin, 1977). The Common Crowned Pigeon usually have clown-like patterns in their body, but some others are all greyish. This bird has around 66 cm height (Beehler et al 1986) and 1800- 2400 g weight (Baptista et al 1997).
2.2.2. The Victoria’s crowned pigeon (Goura victoria Fraser 1844)
Victoria’s Crowned Pigeon was described firstly as Lophyrus victoria (Fraser 1844 in Proc. Zool. Soc. London, page 136 in Mayr 1941 and Nijboer &
Damen 2000). This bird has several different names such as White-tipped Goura, White-tipped Crowned Pigeon (English), Goura de Victoria (French), Fächertaube (Germany) and Gura Victoria (Spain) (Goodwin 1977; Baptista et al, 1997). In Papua Indonesia, this bird is called locally as ‘mambruk raja’ or ‘mambruk kembang”. The bird has two subspecies, G.victoria victoria (described by Fraser 1984) and G.victoria beccarii (described by Salvadori 1876). The name of
“Victoria” has been given to the bird as an honour to Queen Victoria, England’s queen at that time (Fleay 1961 in Rand and Gilliard 1967).
This species can be distinguished simply from the other two Goura species due to its white tips on the crest. The crest of Victoria’s Crowned Pigeon is blue with combination between blue and white tips and the barbs at their ends are only slightly separated (Baptista et al 1997). This bird is darker than the Common Crowned Pigeon. Furthermore, Victoria’s Crowned Pigeon has a pale blue spot on each wing that are very-well visible if the bird is not spreading its wings.
Actually, the bird’s general colour is dark-greyish blue, with dark-purplish red breast, the wings are patched pale-greyish blue, with dark purple edges, the irises are red or purplish red, the beak is dark grey, and the bird has purplish red legs and feet (Baptista et al 1997). The bird’s nominated form is slightly smaller and rather darker in colour. Similar with Common Crowned Pigeon, Victoria Crowned Pigeon is about 66 cm in size (Beehler et al 1986), with about 2000 g in weight (Baptista et al 1997). The biggest individual recorded was 74 cm height and weight of 2384 g (Baptista et al 1997).
The main diets of these species usually consist of fallen fruits from forest trees, including berries and hard-coated seeds (Peckover and Filewood 1976,
14 Coates 1985). In captivity the birds can be adapted to sliced fruit, grapes, lettuce, maize, carrots, peanuts and especially fond of the wild fig fruit Ficus macrophylla (Fleay 1961 in Rand and Gilliard 1967)
2.2.3. The Scheepmakeri’s crowned pigeon (Goura scheepmakeri Finch 1876)
This species was discovered by the Italian explorer D’Albertis and firstly described by Finch (1st of April 1876 in Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1875 page 631 plate 68 in Mayr 1941 and Nijboer & Damen 2000). Goura scheepmakeri is also named as “Maroon-breasted Crowned Pigeon, The Southern-Crowned Pigeon, Scalter’s Crowned Pigeon, Scheepmaker’s Crowned Pigeon and Great Goura (English), Goura de scheepmaker (French), Gura Surena (Spain)” and in Germany as “Maronenbrust-Krontaube” (Goodwin 1977, Beehler et al 1986 and Baptista et al 1997). In Indonesia, this species is named locally as “mambruk besar” or
“mambruk ungu”.
The Scheepmakeri Crowned Pigeon is just as blue as the Common Crowned Pigeon, but its blue colour is more intensive than that of the Victoria Crowned Pigeon. The Scheepmakeri has a deeply red breast, its crest only has blue colour, and the wings have a brightly white spot, which is larger if compared with the spot on Common Crowned Pigeon wings. The Scheepmakeri Crowned Pigeon is differed from Common Crown Pigeon due to its colour on certain body parts including the dark purplish red belly and breast specifically below the neck (Gibbs et al 2001, Baptista et al 1997). Its mantle and smaller wings are covered with dark-greyish blue feathers like upper part of the breast and the wings are patched with very pale whitish grey.
The subspecies Goura scheepmakeri scheepmakeri is slightly different from the other sub species G.scheepmakeri scalaterii. The lower breast and belly of G.scheepmakeri sclaterii are greyish blue but in G.scheepmakeri scheepmakeri dark purplish red (Baptista et al 1997). The breast and the belly of both sub species can be in maroon colour like that of Victoria Crowned Pigeon (Beehler et al 1986). Scheepmakeri’s irises are deep red and the bill is dark bluish grey and it has purplish red legs and feet (Baptista et al 1997). Partial melanism also occurs
15 in Scheepmakeri Crowned Pigeon, but not as frequent as in the Common Crowned Pigeons.
Originally, Scheepmakeri Crowned Pigeons live along the whole south coast of New Guinea, but according to Beehler et al (1986) the range of G.
scheepmakeri probably extends until Etna Bay. Goura scheepmakeri scheepmakeri inhabits the dry and flooded lowland forest from Hall Sound to Orangerie Bay at the south eastern part of New Guinea (Rand and Gilliard 1967).
The other subspecies G.scheepmakeri sclaterii can be found between Mimika River and Fly River in the south of New Guinea (King and Nijboer, 1994). These two sub-species usually live separately in long distance and this might be the reason why there are many variations between them. It seems that G.
scheepmakeri is fully disappeared from south-eastern part, as the result of the increase of human population in the area, but this species can be reasonably safe in the west of New Guinea area that has less human population (Beehler et al 1986).
2.3. Literature review on Goura ecology
The information on biological aspects of the three Goura species is insufficiently available. It has been stated that they can move in small groups of 2-10 birds, although flocks of up to 30 have been reported (Coates 1985). These birds spend much time foraging on the ground, but the resting and roosting usually on trees (Rand and Gilliard 1967, Coates 1985). They might be wide-ranging and erratic in their movements (Beehler 1982). These birds’ common diet consists of fallen fruits, seeds and berries (Coates 1985), and they are also referred as seed predators (Beehler 1982). Crowned pigeons are reportedly attracted to refuse at sago palm preparation site (Beehler et al 1986), and G.scheepmakeri has also been observed feeding on small crabs (Baptista et al 1997, Gibbs et al 2001).
The observation in captivity showed that Goura lays one egg, which is incubated for 28-30 days (Nijboer and Damen 2000, Beltermann and Poots 2008).
The juveniles usually leave from the nest at 28-36 days of age, at which time they are roughly one-third to one-half of mature size.
16 Full-mature size is reached only after three months, but the juveniles still depend on their parent for several months (King and Nijboer 1994). Another research showed that captive-reared Goura of both sexes can be reproduced successfully when it reached the age of 15-17 months old (King and Nijboer 1994). This result could be different compared with the wild population, which age of the first reproduction varies. The evidence from captivity also suggested that Goura are relatively slow in their reproduction and development, where data from wild populations are still insufficiently available (King and Nijboer 1994).
Originally, all crowned pigeons are considered common over their range, but recently they are absent from large areas due to hunting pressure, and hence can be found numerous in remote areas only (Rand and Gilliard 1967), especially Goura victoria. G.victoria is primarily killed for meat, although its feathers are sometimes used for head-dresses as well (Coates 1985). Its eggs and hatchlings are also taken to be reared for food (Birdlife International 2012), and this bird is quickly hunted by hunters in any forests within a day´s walk from the village (Beehler1991 in King and Nijboer 1994). This species is usually extirpated from the forests around transmigration settlements because the birds are intensively exploited by transmigration settlers, but it might survive from hunting by native people (King and Nijboer 1994).
Basically, the nature and behaviour of crowned pigeons make them particularly susceptible to hunting pressure (King and Nijboer 1994). If being disturbed, they prefer to walk or run away to the remote area, but in demanding situation, this bird will fly noisy to the high branches where they may balance themselves clumsily and gawk at the intruder, and making easy targets of themselves (Rand and Gilliard 1967). Additionally the G.scheepmakeri was remarked as “stupidly tame bird” (Bell 1977 in King and Nijboer 1994), due to its behaviour. Large concentrations of G. cristata have been observed at waterholes in West Papua where they could be easily netted. It remains to be determined whether G.victoria exhibits similar behaviour. Based on recent information, these birds are under threats due to wildlife trade and logging in their lowland habitat, although the hunting on G.victoria is well justified (Bird Life International 2001, Suryadi et al 2007). Genus Goura is highly prized as an aviary bird by bird parks,
17 zoos and private aviculturists throughout the world. Despite national protection legislation and listing on CITES Appendix II, Indonesian CITES authorities recorded an export of 200 specimens of G.scheepmakeri from Merauke in 1992 (King and Nijboer 1994). It is stated that comprehensive evidence on the number of exported pigeons from Papua, which was recorded to CITES by animal handlers in Singapore, was under the true value (King and Nijboer 1994). A large number of Crowned Pigeons was rumoured being sent illegally. For instance, about 560 Crowned Pigeons were taken away from a feeder-handler in Amsterdam on 1991 (King and Nijboer 1994). Accordingly, there is an urgent need to determine the trade level of all Goura species.
It has been argued that captive breeding cannot supply the demand for Goura as aviary birds due to its low reproduction success (King and Nijboer 1994). During 1988-1990, populations of Goura spp in the North American and European studbook suffered from a negative population growth collectively (Nijboer and Damen 2000). This situation was similar in Southeast Asia as well.
It was also reported that much effort was being invested into developing techniques to improve breeding success, so that the situation might be different recently (King and Nijboer 1994).
In Papua, the research on this genus is obviously under developed in their natural habitats, even though several researches have been conducted (Supriatna 1997). More research about Goura species were already carried out in zoos including in the bird parks and safari parks (Handini et al 1992, Setio et al 1996, Roembino 1997). As the results, the most data and information about Goura research are coming from the captivity or zoos. For instance, Rotterdam Zoo in Netherland always releases the important European Studbook of Goura, because they have been doing the long term research on Genus Goura (Nijboer and Damen 2000, Beltermann and Pott 2008). Several research on Goura species which have been done in Papua include study on feeding behaviour, breeding behaviour and propagation of Goura victoria (Setio et al 1996, Roembino 1997), food palatability of Goura cristata and Goura victoria (Tribisono 2002, Notanubun 2002), Goura cristata genetics (Kilmaskossu 2001), and genetics of all species of
18 Genus Goura (Siahaan 2006), and study on birds hunting including Goura victoria (Sada 2005, Mahuse 2006, Pangau-Adam and Noske 2010).
19 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS
3.1. Study area 3.1.1. Papua Province
Recently, Papua is administratively divided into Province of Papua and Province of West Papua (figure 3.2: the white area is the West Papua Province and the other color is Papua Province). Papua Province lies between 2o25’-9oS and 130o-141oE, with total land cover of approximately 317.062 km2 or 17.04%of Indonesia area. Since 2009, Papua Province is divided into 28 Regencies and one Municipality.
Papua has tropical climate with two seasons a year, dry season that last from June to September and rainy season from December to April. Daily temperature varies around 14.8 – 27.5oC at night and 26 - 32oC during the day (BPS 2010b).
The average rainfall of Papua province fluctuates between 1381 mm- 4014 mm annually and rainy days can reach 160 – 281 days a year (BPS 2010b).
Figure 3.1 Map of Papua Province (Source: http://papua.bps.go.id).
Papua region is still largely forested with a variety purpose of forest utilization both by the society and the Government. According to the latest data from Balai Pemantapan Kawasan Hutan Wilayah X Jayapura (Forest Observation Agency Area X Jayapura) in 2010, the total forest area of Papua province is
20 31.773.063 ha. This area consists of 12.639.840 ha or about 39.78% declared as production forest, 1.769.221 ha (5.57%) limited production forests, 6.440.282 ha (20.27%) exchangeable production forests, and 13.906.393 ha (43.77%) as protection forest and conservation area. The rest area or a total of 1.512.690 ha (4.76%) is classified as other designated area including lands and water. The same source also classified the land cover of Papua into several areas include 20.971.610 ha (66% of the whole land cover) primary forest 3.442.842 ha (10.83%) secondary forest, 5.308.693 ha (16.71%) non-forest area, 1.475.230 ha (4.64%) unidentified cloud covered area and 574.688 (1.81%) ha water area, (appendix table 6).
3.1.2 Research location
The study was concentrated in the northern part of the Papua Province, in four different regencies, Mamberamo Raya, Jayapura, Sarmi, and Supiori, where the presence of Victoria Crowned Pigeon was recorded (Beehler et al 1986).
Detailed observations on the population density of Goura victoria was conducted in four forest areas, Buare forest in Mamberamo Raya, Northern Supiori forest in Supiori, Unurumguay forest in Jayapura and Bonggo forest in Sarmi regency (figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2 Map of the northern part of Papua Province and the location of field studies
21 3.1.2.1 District of Mamberamo Tengah - Mamberamo Raya Regency
The Regency of Mamberamo Raya is new regency in Papua Province, which is expanded from Sarmi Regency. The partition was based on the Legal Acts No. 19/2007. Mamberamo Raya Regency consists of 8 district and 59 villages (http://www. mamberamorayakab.go.id/). This regency lies between 01o28’ – 03o50’ S and 137o46’ – 140o19’ E.
Buare village as the study site is located at 3o18’56.8”S and 138o42’51.0”E.
It is one of the remote villages and a part of District Mamberamo Tengah, Mamberamo Raya Regency. The village can only be reached from Dabra (District Capital) by traditional boat or ‘ketinting’ up to the Mamberamo River and turn to the Buare River, which is taken approximately 3 – 5 hours trip. In the rainy season, Buare’s villagers usually have to walk through the forest to get to their village. Dabra can be reached from Jayapura (the capital city of Papua province) by flying with light aircraft or small propeller aircraft, or by long time- boarding in small-ships from the mouth of Mamberamo River.
Buare is only a small settlement inhabited by 15 families with less than 70 people. As stated before, this village was an expansion from Dabra, so it has no available supporting facilities. Houses at Buare village are very simple, built on stilts, with floors made from barks of Nibung palm (Oncosperma tigillaria), roofs from woven grasses or ‘alang-alang’ (Imperata cylindrica), and most of the house are built without walls. The settlement was only temporary until the infrastructures were built up by the Government. Consequently, the entire population of this village lived temporarily in Dabra. Commonly, Buare villagers only stay in their village for about 3-4 months a year. The main livelihoods of the villagers include the practice of subsistence hunting and non-intensive agriculture.
The wild meat that obtained from hunting is mostly used for self-consumption, but sometimes it is also sold on the market day in Dabra, if they need fresh money.
The whole area of Mamberamo Raya Regency lies in the Mamberamo watershed. The Mamberamo-Foja Wildlife Sanctuary was established in this watershed and was declared under the Decree of Republic Indonesia Minister of
22 Agriculture No. 820/1982 (http://bksdapapua.net/index.php/suakamarga satwamamberamofoja.html).
In general, there is low level of human interference in Buare’s forest, so the large area of primary forest still remains. The forest is located far from the village and still difficult to be accessed, so commonly only the local people or tribal land- owners can enter the forest. The forests have a high potential of wood, for example the commercial-valuable ironwood (Intsia bijuga L.). Also, there are many wild animals inhabit the forest, for instance Victoria Crowned Pigeon, wild hog, tree kangaroo, birds of paradise, Blyth’s hornbill, and northern cassowary.
(http://www. mamberamorayakab.go.id/).
The study site in Buare was established in Buare watersheds. In this site, there were small-scale traditional farms where the local people usually plant and harvest their crops every three or six months per year. This condition may occur because the Buare tribes stay in their village less than three months.
3.1.2.2. District of Unurumguay-Jayapura Regency
The study sites in District Unurumguay, Jayapura Resgency were located in Guriath village and Sawesuma village. Each village has different features.
The village of Guriath lies on 02o26’39.2”S and 139o45’30.3”E. The population is about 300 people or approximately 60 families, and most of the villagers prefer to stay near to the main road. The main livelihoods are hunting and subsistence gathering-farming. In order to earn money, they generally collect pebbles and stones from Tuarim river (under Ondoafi’s or village chief’s permission), then sell these materials to settlement developers. Some of them are working as daily labors in road construction companies. This village does not have sufficient infrastructure facilities like village office. Consequently, most administrations and activities of the community were centered on the house of the Village’s Secretary.
The next study site, Sawesuma village is located about ten kilometers from Guriath village, and lies on 02o22’51.4”S and 139o47’33.5”E. These two villages are separated by the Trans Irian highway that connecting Jayapura city, Jayapura Regency and Sarmi Regency. Unlike Guriath, Sawesuma village has already a
23 complete infrastructure. There are 95 families or approximately 400 people living in Sawesuma village (Jayapura Regency in figures 2010, http://jayapurakab.
bps.go.id).
The livelihood of Sawesuma villagers consists of hunting, gathering-farming and dredging sago starch. To earn money, the villagers usually work as wages labors on the nearest construction company and also sell stones and pebbles.
Observation showed that villagers from both villages prefer to work as labors, because it is easier and faster to achieve some money compared to other jobs.
Local people in both villages are planting cocoa in their farm as supported by the farming program from government of Jayapura Regency. These plantations are usually located in the edge of village or even in the forest area. Commonly, economic activities occur among the villagers themselves, or only with neighbor villages due to the absence of market. For daily purposes, the villagers rely on mobiles vendors or kiosks run by the people from other Indonesian islands which sell various daily needs with high price. The distance between villages to district center or regency capital, high cost of local transportation, and lack of public transport vehicles are the main problems on the accessibility for the villagers to other places (Village secretary of Guriath and Sawesuma, pers.comm.)
The forest area around both villages can be classified as secondary forest.
This forest had been a logging concession area of PT Wapoga Mutiara Timber since 1980’s until 20 years ago. Besides, all forest areas are commonly used by local people for shifting cultivation, gathering forest products and hunting. The forest is a natural habitat for several Papuan wildlife including Victoria crowned pigeon, paradise bird, two species of Megapodes, northern cassowary, fruit pigeons, wallaby, kangaroo and wild hog. Due to the riches of wildlife, this forest area is often visited by outsiders for hunting wild hog or deer, with the permission from village’s chief or Ondoafi.
The district of Unurumguay was basically a logging concession forest of PT Wapoga Mutiara Timber as well, but since 20 years ago the logging activity has already ended. Recently, this forest area is frequently used by local people for their daily activities like hunting, traditional farming, and also for logging
