Spätmittelalter, Humanismus, Reformation
Studies in the Late Middle Ages, Humanism, and the Reformation
herausgegeben von Volker Leppin (Tübingen) in Verbindung mit
Amy Nelson Burnett (Lincoln, NE), Johannes Helmrath (Berlin), Matthias Pohlig (Berlin), Eva Schlotheuber (Düsseldorf),
Klaus Unterburger (Regensburg)
116
Mohr Siebeck Mattias Skat Sommer
Envisioning the Christian Society
Niels Hemmingsen (1513–1600) and the Ordering
of Sixteenth-Century Denmark
Mattias skat soMMer, born 1989; theological studies in Aarhus and Göttingen; 2016 cand.
theol. Aarhus University; 2019 PhD Aarhus University; since 2020 Carlsberg Foundation postdoctoral researcher at the University of Göttingen.
orcid.org/0000-0003-3656-322X
ISBN 978-3-16-159456-4 / eISBN 978-3-16-159457-1 DOI 10.1628/978-3-16-159457-1
ISSN 1865-2840 / eISSN 2569-4391 (Spätmittelalter, Humanismus, Reformation)
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2020 Mohr Siebeck Tübingen, Germany. www.mohrsiebeck.com
This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems.
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Printed in Germany.
Til Julie og Leonora
Preface
This study is a slightly revised version of a PhD dissertation submitted to Aar- hus University in early 2019. While I take full responsibility for the words on these pages, I would have laboured in vain had it not been for invaluable assis- tance and help from many people, all of whom deserve my sincere gratitude.
First, thanks goes to the Graduate School at the Faculty of Arts at Aarhus University for agreeing with me that Reformation studies matter and for grant- ing me a research fellowship in 2014. My Doktorväter Bo Kristian Holm and Carsten Bach-Nielsen always supported my ventures into the history of the Reformations with a mixture of interest and advice. I am also grateful to my other colleagues in Aarhus for providing a stimulating environment during my time at the Department of Theology.
Nils Arne Pedersen, Sabine Hiebsch, and Thomas Kaufmann formed an ex- cellent assessment committee and asked many difficult and stimulating ques- tions at the defence of my dissertation on 1 April 2019. I am very happy to have had such erudite scholars as discussion partners. I also thank Thomas Kaufmann for help and encouragement in turning the dissertation into a book.
I thank Volker Leppin and his co-editors for gladly accepting the manu- script, and I feel honoured to see my work appear in SMHR. At Mohr Siebeck, Martina Kayser and Matthias Spitzner carefully oversaw the production of the book. Leann Pracht, my meticulous proofreader, improved my English. Gen- erous funding by Konsul George Jorck og Hustru Emma Jorck’s Fond, Den Hielmstierne-Rosencroneske Stiftelse, and J. Oskar Andersens Legat made the production of this book possible.
Last but not least, I want to thank my family. During the writing of this book, their presence in my life constantly made me realize that research is not everything. Julie and Leonora, you continuously remind me that I am a husband and a father, and that the present means more than the past. I love you. This work is dedicated to you.
Silkeborg, 15 April 2020 Mattias Skat Sommer
Table of Contents
Preface ... VII List of Abbreviations ... XIII List of Figures ... XV
Introduction
... 1A. Approaching the Expert: Two Methods ... 2
B. Previous Hemmingsen Studies: A Critical Assessment ... 13
C. Terminology and Method ... 19
Part One: Contextualizing Niels Hemmingsen Chapter 1: The Reformation in Denmark: Lutheranism without Confessionalism?
... 29A. A Princely Reformation: The Staging and Branding of the Kings ... 30
B. Religious Migration and Foreign Politics ... 36
C. Lutheran Confessionalism or Pan-Protestant A-Confessionalism? ... 45
I. Limits of Pan-Protestantism? ... 58
Chapter 2: Estates Discourse in the Sixteenth Century
... 67Table of Contents
X
A. Luther’s Three Estates ... 68
I.II. Luther’s Confession ... 70
II.I. Luther’s Genesis Lectures ... 71
II.I. 1. Editing the Genesis Lectures and Forming Evangelical Identity . 72 B. Social Theology in Melanchthon ... 74
C. Social Theology in Calvin ... 80
D. Humanist Ethic ... 84
I.II. Erasmus of Rotterdam ... 85
II.I. Juan Luis Vives ... 89
E. Recapitulation: Differences and Similarities in Sixteenth-Century E. Social Thought ... 92
Part Two: Hemmingsen as a Confessionalizing Agent Chapter 3: The Art of Living Well: Hemmingsen on the Callings of a Christian
... 97A. Living in the World: The Exegetical and Homiletical Works ... 97
I.II. Learning from Examples: Postilla ... 99
II.I. Walking Through Life: Enarratio Psalmi Vigesimi Qvinti ... 107
III. The Art of Dying: The Funeral Sermons for Herluf Trolle II.I. and Otte Rud ... 116
B. Law and Life: Liffsens Vey ... 125
C. The Christian Life According to Hemmingsen ... 133
Chapter 4: Shepherd or Servant: Hemmingsen’s Image of the Pastor
... 135A. Disciplining Soul, Body, and Deeds: Pastor ... 136
B. Pastoral Ethos and Experthood in Hemmingsen ... 148
Table of Contents XI
Chapter 5: Father of the Fatherland:
Hemmingsen on Good Governance
... 151A. Defending the Oldenburg Brand: Hemmingsen’s Prefaces ... 151
I.II. How the Danish Rule: De Besynderligste Historier ... 153
II.I. Fabricating a Dynasty of Old: De Methodis and Commentaria II.I. in Omnes Epistolas ... 156
B. Preaching and Teaching Governance: B. Secular Authority in the Postilla and the Assertiones ... 164
Chapter 6: Market and Moral: Hemmingsen on Economic Transactions
... 169A. The Danish Interest Debate in the Mid-Sixteenth Century ... 171
B. Interest and Usury in Hemmingsen’s Commentary on James ... 175
C. Interest Not Against Nature? ... 184
Conclusion
... 189Bibliography ... 199
Figures ... 213
Index of Names and Places ... 223
Subject Index ... 229
Index of Biblical References ... 233
List of Abbreviations
Quotations from the Bible are from the New Revised Standard Version, Anglicized Edition.
ALS: Hillerbrand, Hans J., Kirsi I. Stjerna, and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. The Annotated Luther Series. 6 vols. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2015–17.
Brecht: Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. 3 vols. Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1981–87.
BSELK: Dingel, Irene, ed. Die Bekenntnisschriften der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche:
Vollständige Neuedition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014.
CCD: Secher, V.A., ed. Corpus Constitutionum Daniæ: Forordninger, Recesser og andre kongelige Breve, Danmarks Lovgivning vedrørende. 6 vols. Copenhagen: Rudolph Klein, 1887–1918.
CR: Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, and Heinrich Ernst Bindseil, eds. Corpus Reformatorum:
Philippi Melanthonis Opera quae supersunt omnia. 26 vols. Halle an der Saale, Braun- schweig: Schwetschke, 1834–60.
CWE: Desiderius Erasmus. Collected Works of Erasmus. 89 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974–.
DDR: Andersen, Aage and Erik Kroman, eds. Den Danske Rigslovgivning. 4 vols. Copen- hagen: Det Danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab, 1971–2015.
DDKH: Koch, Hal, Bjørn Kornerup, P.G. Lindhardt, and Niels Knud Andersen, eds. Den Danske Kirkes Historie. 8 vols. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1950–66.
DKL: Rørdam, Holger F., ed. Danske Kirkelove samt Udvalg af Andre Bestemmelser vedrø- rende Kirken, Skolen og de Fattiges Forsørgelse fra Reformationen indtil Christian V’s Danske Lov, 1536–1683. 3 vols. Copenhagen: Selskabet for Danmarks Kirkehistorie, 1883–89.
Inst.: John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1559 edition (OS III–V).
KiO: Lausten, Martin Schwarz, ed. Kirkeordinansen 1537/39. Copenhagen: Akademisk For- lag, 1989.
KD: Nielsen, Oluf August, ed. Kjøbenhavns Diplomatarium: Samling af Dokumenter, Breve og andre Kilder til Oplysning om Kjøbenhavns ældre Forhold før 1728. 8 vols. Copen- hagen: G.E.C. Gad 1880–87.
LCL: Loeb Classical Library. 537 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London:
Heinemann, 1912–.
LW: Luther, Martin. Luther’s Works: American Edition. 82 vols. St Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House; Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1955–1986.2009–.
OS: Barth, Peter, Wilhelm Niesel, and Dora Scheuner, eds. Joannis Calvini Opera Selecta.
5 vols. Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1929–36.
PL: Migne, Jacques-Paul, ed. Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Latina. 217 vols. Paris:
Impremiere Catholique, 1844–90.
List of Abbreviations
XIV
QuM1: Dingel, Irene, ed. Die Bekenntnisschriften der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche:
Vollständige Neuedition: Quellen und Materialien, vol. 1: Von den altkirchlichen Sym- bolen bis zu den Katechismen Martin Luthers. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014.
USTC: Universal Short Title Catalogue, http://ustc.ac.uk.
VD16: Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhun- derts, http://www.vd16.de.
VD17: Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhun- derts, http://www.vd17.de.
VOO: Mayans y Siscar, Gregorio, ed. Joannis Ludovici Vivis Valentini Opera Omnia. 8 vols.
Valencia: Monfort, 1782–90.
WA: Luther, Martin. D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe. 127 vols. Wei- mar: Böhlau, 1883–2009.
List of Figures
Figure 1: The ideal pastor. Woodcut from Hemmingsen’s Pastor, 1566. Image courtesy of the Royal Library, Copenhagen.
Figure 2: Portrait of Hemmingsen. Woodcut found at the title page of Hemmingsen’s Pos- tilla, 1600. Image courtesy of the Royal Library, Copenhagen.
Figure 3: Portrait of Hemmingsen, 1595, unknown artist. Image courtesy of the National History Museum at Frederiksborg, Hillerød (photo: Kit Weiss).
Figure 4: Emblem 27, Scrutamimi Scripturas. Woodcut from Daniel Cramer, Emblemata Sacra, 1624. Image courtesy of the Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen.
Figure 5. Hemmingsen’s slab in the Cathedral of Roskilde. Reproduction from J. B. Løffler, Les pierres tumulaires de la cathedrale de Roskilde et d'autres églises en cette ville. Co- penhagen: Reitzel, 1885, table 29.
Figure 6: Melchior Lorck’s engraving of Frederik II, 1582. Image courtesy of Billedsam- lingen at the Royal Library, Copenhagen.
Figure 7: Woodcut from Hemmingsen’s Enarratio psalmi vigesimi qvinti, 1567. Image cour- tesy of the Royal Library, Copenhagen.
Figure 8: Altar frontal from the rural church of Torslunde, 1561. Image courtesy of the Na- tional Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen (photo: Niels Elswing)
Figure 9: Woodcut from Niels Nielsen Kolding’s De Besynderligste Historier, 1567. Image courtesy of the Royal Library, Copenhagen.
Introduction
To early modern Europeans, religion was the vinculum societatis, the bond that tied society together. Religion and religious belief, says Trevor Johnson, con- stituted “the fundamental cosmology underlying the cultural framework of so- ciety.”1 In the early modern world, religion and belief in religion permeated all aspects of social life, and the discipline of theology was widely held in great esteem, as were its foremost practitioners, that is, university professors of the- ology and court preachers.2 These were the experts on how to live one’s life as a Christian.
In continuation with the understanding of theology developed through me- dieval times, this academic discipline was connected with other subjects such as jurisprudence and economics. While these were domains largely reserved for canon lawyers before the Reformations, on Protestant ground it became one of the main tasks of theologians to deal with such matters. The Reformations and the deconstruction of the idea of ecclesiastical unity created a need for consolidation, and this opportunity was seized by princes and magistrates throughout Europe. They soon turned to theologians for advice.
Theological experts, therefore, were important agents in defining the field of social interaction in post-Reformation times. These experts had power. Not that they were rulers or politicians – their power was, to adopt the terminology of Pierre Bourdieu, symbolic.3 They constructed a coherent symbolic universe in which theology was envisioned as the discipline that could shape societies.
The power of theological experts was, basically, a discursive power which sought to be influential on social order. The power of princes and magistrates, on the other hand, eventually needed an ideological basis which could serve as a legitimization for their political attempts to consolidate the Reformation.4
1 Johnson, “Religion,” 145.
2 See, e.g., S. Schmidt, Professoren, and Kaufmann, Universität. Schmidt and Kaufmann emphasize how theology professors in Copenhagen, Uppsala, and Rostock acted as experts during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Nischan, “Calvinism,” 205 argues that “court chaplains had a decisive hand in molding princely opinion and shaping public policy.”
3 Bourdieu, “Social Space and Symbolic Power,” 23: “Symbolic power is the power to make things with words. It is only if it is true, that is, adequate to things, that description makes things.”
4 The 1539 Copenhagen university charter, Fundatio et Ordinatio universalis Scholae Hafniensis, pledged professors in the theological faculty to act as advisers to the Danish king
2 Introduction
Their “confessionalization,” as historians say, could only take place against a theological backdrop.5 Hence, for the historian who wants to permeate the logic of power and responsibility that underlay the new political order emerging in the wake of the Reformations, it seems to be a feasible path to study theological experts’ construction of the social field.
A. Approaching the Expert: Two Methods
A. Approaching the Expert
This study is devoted to one of these experts and his works: Danish second- generation reformer Niels Hemmingsen (1513–1600), whom it aims to put in historical context.6 A theological expert, Hemmingsen’s primary agency lies within the complex dovetailing of politics and religion in the Reformations witnessed by early modern historians. Bearing Trevor Johnson’s words in mind, however, one must remember that a distinction between politics and re- ligion only works as the historian’s hermeneutical tool.7 For Hemmingsen, they were interconnected spheres of communication and action.
and government. See Norvin, Københavns Universitet, II, 25: “Ad hos etiam pertinebit re- spondere nobis et nostris Successoribus Danie Regibus, nostris nobilibus, prefectis et Mag- istratibus, ubi re bene declarata et si opus fuerit testibusque per nos, aut nostros Magistratus examinata, ipsos interrogauerimus de casibus conscientiarum, et in dubiis rebus ab eis ques- ierimus consiliu dei ex uerbo ipsius.”
5 Spitz, “Importance of the Reformation,” 56 speaks of universities as “agents of confes- sionalism,” and Kaufmann, Universität, 605 boldly claims that “ohne Theologieprofessoren keine Konfessionalisierung!”
6 “Denmark” and “Danish” is used throughout the study for the sake of simplicity, though strictly speaking these categories only make sense from the nineteenth century onwards.
Hemmingsen’s Denmark was part of the Oldenburg composite state, established with the election of count Christian VII of Oldenburg as king Christian I of Denmark in 1448 (r.
1448–81). The Oldenburg composite state consisted of the dual monarchy of Denmark and Norway, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein (the latter a part of the Lower Saxon Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, making the king-duke a membrum Imperii), Dithmarschen, the North Atlantic provinces of the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland, and the dependencies of Gotland and Øsel in the Baltic Sea. What connected these territories was not ethnicity or language but the Augsburg Confession and the suzerainty of the Danish Crown. As a ruler of a great composite state, the Danish king was one of the leading Protestant rulers in early modern Europe. Since Frederik I (r. 1523–32), Danish monarchs used a style that reflected their territories: “By the Grace of God, King of Denmark and Norway, the Wends and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Count of Oldenburg and Del- menhorst.” Regarding the history of the composite state, see Bregnsbo, “Die lutherische Staatskirche.”
7 Pohlig, “Drawing Boundaries,” 173: “Both realms were neither one nor separate; they were complex fields of communication and action with a high and evolving degree of inter- connection.”
A. Approaching the Expert 3 Born on the small island of Lolland in the Baltic Sea, Hemmingsen came to Wittenberg in the mid-1530s and studied with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) at the Leucorea. In the early 1540s he was back in his native Denmark, where king Christian III (r. 1534–59) had intro- duced a Reformation during 1536–37, and Hemmingsen took up a chair in the Copenhagen Faculty of Arts. After he received a Bachelor’s degree of theology in 1553, he was transferred to the Faculty of Theology, where a chair had been vacant since 1548 when the quarrelsome Oluf Chrysostomus (1500–53) was removed to the remote superintendency of Vendsyssel in Northern Jutland.
In 1557, Hemmingsen was awarded a theological doctorate and became the primus theologicus at the University of Copenhagen and an important adviser to the Danish Crown, which since the mid-fifteenth centuries was in the hands of the House of Oldenburg.8 Twenty-two years later, in 1579, king Frederik II (r. 1559–88) suspended Hemmingsen as the orthodoxy of his teachings on the Lord’s Supper were being questioned in Electoral Saxony, then ruled by Au- gust (r. 1553–86), who was married to Christian III’s daughter Anna (1532–
85), Frederik’s older sister. The king, however, acted very reluctantly, and Hemmingsen kept some of his influence at court until his death. When he died in 1600, he even had a lavish funeral in the Cathedral of Roskilde, the sepul- chral church of the House of Oldenburg.
Today, only a few traces of Hemmingsen are left. His books are rarely read, but they can be consulted online in digitized versions. His slab in the Cathedral of Roskilde is in such a damaged state that one must resort to seventeenth- century graphic reproductions to study it in detail. A street in Central Copen- hagen was named after him in 1881, but only against protests from the resi- dents, who did not have the remotest idea of who he was.
Unlike in the late nineteenth century, and unlike today, Hemmingsen’s life and afterlife was well known all over early modern Europe. He was lauded as the “light of Denmark,” and was worthy of being “[r]ecorded in each memory”
– so did bishop Peder Winstrup (1549–1614) commend Hemmingsen in his funeral sermon for him on May 23, 1600. Thomas Fuller (1608–61) likewise in 1651 encouraged his fellow Englishmen to remember the Danish professor more than fifty years after his decease.9
Printers in Electoral Saxony were amongst the first to publish his works, and during his lifetime English translators and printers successfully adapted the works of Hemmingsen – whom they saw as a skilled worker in the Lord’s Vineyard because of his pious service to the church of Christ – to an Anglican
8 Regarding the more detailed aspects of Hemmingsen’s biography, see Lausten, Niels Hemmingsen.
9 M. S. Sommer, “The Construction of a Seventeenth-Century Protestant Memory,” 147–
55.
4 Introduction
audience.10 Reformed theologians in the Empire and the Swiss Confederation corresponded with him. He had, it seems, a manifest appeal to all branches of the magisterial Reformation.
One way to approach Hemmingsen the expert as he was seen by his contem- poraries is to dive into what one could call the fabrication of the collective memory of Hemmingsen. According to literary theorist Astrid Erll, social groups remember the past in a certain way, through certain media, and with a certain stereotyping agenda. Erll distinguishes between material, social, and mental dimensions of memory.
Collective memory, according to Erll, is created by a use and production of cultural artefacts within a social setting that seeks to establish and confirm cer- tain normative codes such as selfing and othering.11 All three constitutive ele- ments in collective memory are at hand in the way Hemmingsen was remem- bered in early modern Europe. What unites these elements in the remembrance of Hemmingsen is the imagery of the pastor. In this cultural code there is ritual, tactility, and, as the third element, an emphasis on scholarly knowledge.
The memory of Hemmingsen as pastor is centred around his funeral that took place in the Cathedral of Roskilde, the city in which Hemmingsen had lived as a canon since his 1579 suspension. Studying two sources of memoria Hemmingiana, his slab in the church and the funeral sermon presented by bishop Winstrup, shows that the ways in which his memory was fabricated rested on the idea that Hemmingsen was primarily a pastor, a minister in the Church of God. However, this idea found a precedent in the 1565 Leipzig ver- sion of Hemmingsen’s handbook Pastor, originally published in Latin three years prior at Barth’s shop in Copenhagen. In this German translation from the Vögelin workshop a portrait with emblematic qualities, having inscriptio, pic- tura, and subscriptio, was printed between Hemmingsen’s preface and a prayer that Christ may give to his flock on earth veracious and upright shepherds (see figure 1). In the original Latin version this portrait did not appear.
The portrait by an unknown master using the monogram LHF (with a gouge below the letters) depicts a bearded, middle-aged man in academic vestments standing behind a table with an open book in his hand and a closed book lying on the table, thus appearing as a learned minister.12 He is standing before a wall onto which two images are placed, one on each side of his head. The image does not say so, but it is likely that Hemmingsen himself is being portrayed,
10 M. S. Sommer, “An Outsider’s Voice?”
11 Erll, Kollektives Gedächtnis, 115–18.
12 Hemmingsen, Vnterrichtunge, A8v. According to Nagler and Andresen, the artist LHF is associated with but not identical to Johann Teufel (fl. 1564–84) who continued the image programme of the Lucas Cranach the Younger school. The F most likely meaning “fecit,”
LH and Teufel worked in Wittenberg and Leipzig during the latter half of the century, e.g., on the 1572 Lufft imprint of the Luther Bible. See Nagler and Andresen, Die Monogram- misten, 364–65.
A. Approaching the Expert 5 being the author of the book as well as its subject, the well-conducted and (well-conducting) leader of a flock.13 However, the image could also simply be the ideal Lutheran pastor, as there are no known printed sources of images de- picting Hemmingsen to which the artist could have turned. The next, or, strictly speaking, first example of a Hemmingsen portrait appearing in print comes from shortly after his death, namely from the title page of a 1600 imprint of a 1576 Danish translation of Hemmingsen’s Postilla.14 This portrait, encircled by the Latin inscription NIC: HEMMING. S.S. THEOLOG: DOCT: NATVS Aͦ
1513 ÆTAT 87, mimics the 1595 painting by unknown artist, now held at the Frederiksborg (see figures 2 and 3). So even if the master of the Leipzig wood- cut had no source to refer to – unless he actually knew Hemmingsen – his por- trait nevertheless was true to the aim of the book.
The pastor in Pastor emerges as the good shepherd. Above the portrait itself, the inscriptio reads 2. Timoth. 2. In 2 Tim 2 Timothy is admonished by pseudo- Paul to live as a worker approved by God (v. 15), and towards the end of the chapter the imagery of the large house (οἰκία μεγάλη) is introduced. In the large house there are several utensils which differ from each other because of mate- rial (gold, silver, wood, clay) and use (special and ordinary). Applying the eco- nomic metaphors on human beings, in particular pastors, v. 21 promises that
“all who cleanse themselves of the things I have mentioned [i.e. the opposite of being a worker approved by God, as in vv. 14 and 16–19] will become spe- cial utensils, dedicated and useful to the owner of the house, ready for every good work.”
The images hanging on the wall are, like the image which they are placed in, emblemlike. They have no inscriptio (unless 2. Timoth. 2. functions as a shared inscriptio for the two picturae in pictura) but below each of the two picturae a subscriptio is placed. The image to the pastor’s right (the beholder’s left) is the shepherd coming to the rescue of his flock which is being attacked by a wolf. Below, Esto typvs fidelivm. 1. Tim. 4. (be an example in faith), a paraphrase of 1 Tim 4:12. To the pastor’s left, the shepherd is seen slaying the wolf with a spear, protectively standing before his flock. The subscriptio, At- tende lectioni. 1. Tim. 4. (give attention to the studies), paraphrases 1 Tim 4:13.
These small emblems within the emblem call attention to the overall theme of the image: the pastor as shepherd.
In the pictura the bearded pastor, fronting the beholder, is placed in the cen- tre behind a table, holding an open book in his left hand. On the table, at his right hand, lies another book. As becomes clear from the words in it, the pastor
13 According to Amy Nelson Burnett, “Hemmingsen’s book can best be described as a conduct-book for pastors.” See Burnett, “Lutheran Pastors’ Manual,” 546.
14 A preface by the printer, Henrich Waldkirch (d. 1629), dated on Michaelmas (29 Sep- tember), suggests that Postilla was reprinted only after Hemmingsen’s death, an event re- ferred to in the preface; Hemmingsen, Postilla Eller Forklaring, ) : ( 6v.
6 Introduction
is holding the Bible in his hand. The book is opened on Jos 1:8, quoted in Latin from the Vulgata, “this book of the law shall not depart out of your mouth; you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to act in accord- ance with all that is written in it. For then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful.”15
In the image programme of the woodcut, the quotation from Josh 1 indicates that the pastor is to expound the law, and it is the law that regulates all aspects of human life. In front of Hemmingsen’s right hand another book is placed, having on its front cover a Vulgata quotation from John 5:39, scrutamini scrip- turas, “you search the scriptures.” With this title, the book could be an allegory on the book the beholder holds in his or her hand, namely Pastor – for it is the pastors who are to search the scriptures.
The subscriptio of the Hemmingsen-pastor emblem relates to the inscriptio.
Unlike the other textual elements in the images, it is in German: “Befleissige dich Gotte zu erzeigen einen rechtschaffenenn vnd vntrefflichen Arbeiter der da recht theile das Wort der warheit.” These words are from the translation of 2 Tim 2:15 of the Lutherbibel, and taken as a whole, the emblem’s inscriptio, pictura, and subscriptio with the shepherd emblems within the emblem sug- gests an idea of the pastor as a guide and a spiritual adviser, a practising Seel- sorger.16
Within New Testament material there is a similar incidence of combining the shepherd motive and the study of the scriptures. In Acts 8:26–40., Philip is invited to get into the chariot of the Ethiopian eunuch who was reading the prophet Isaiah. The eunuch, however, did not understand what he was reading, and it is only when Philip, asking the eunuch if he really understands, expounds the words so that he finally grasps the message.
In the emblem culture of early modern Lutheranism, this New Testament imagery of the pastor as both scriptural guide and spiritual adviser was taken up by Daniel Cramer (1568–1637). In his 1624 Emblemata Sacra Cramer chose Acts 8:30 as the context for his emblem 27 in book 2 (see figure 4). With the inscriptio coming from John 5:39, scrutamini scripturas, the pictura has Philip expounding Isaiah to the eunuch in the chariot. Below a subscriptio,
“when I read, when I meditate on the word about the celestial Lord, I under- stand his celestial intellect.”
In material culture Cramer’s emblem was also influential, and the use of it (and other emblem books) in Scandinavian and Baltic church architecture is
15 Vulgata version: “Non recedat volumen legis hujus ab ore tuo: sed meditaberis in eo diebus ac noctibus, ut custodias et facias omnia quæ scripta sunt in eo: tunc diriges viam tuam, et intelliges eam.”
16 On the title page of the original Latin Pastor, 2 Tim 2:15 is quoted on the title page:
“Stude teipsum probatum sistere Deo, operarium non erubescendum recte secantem ser- monem veritatis.”
A. Approaching the Expert 7 well-documented.17 In the early eighteenth century, the rural church in Vroue close to Viborg was decorated, using Cramer’s emblem book as a model. On the altar front the emblem scrutamini scripturas is seen, together with mitesco (emblem 4, book 2) and ut bibam (emblem 11, book 2).18
The 1565 woodcut was part, it seems, of a larger European discursive net- work centred on the significance of preaching and on its ecclesiastical context.
According to this discourse, scrutamini scripturas and related concepts mainly derived from the Pastoral Letters, such as those visible in the present woodcut, became the very emblem of the clergy. It became a strategy for the commem- oration of dutiful and skilled preachers. Besides its context within emblem cul- ture, the portrait of Hemmingsen also drew on a much older tradition that was revitalized by the Cranachs in Wittenberg, namely, a formula for, if not the veneration of the dead, then at least the memory of them.
Drawing on Humanist portraits and Sterbebilder from the fifteenth and six- teenth century, the Cranachs created a Reformation iconography that to a large extent was centred on Luther, who was not portrayed as a mere human being but rather, utilizing traditional hagiographical rhetoric, a prophet whose memory needed to be kept alive amongst his believers. It was one of the ways, suggests Edgar Bierende, to secure the afterlife of the Reformation.19
In subsequent decades this iconographical programme led to the formulation of a geistliches Sonderbewusstsein amongst Lutherans, not least drawing on three estates discourse.20 Unlike the formulations one would find in Luther (see below chapter 2 at pp. 69–71), the notion of Sonderbewusstsein suggests that the clerical estate was indeed more than a theological idea – it also entailed a distinct social estate, a specific social group with a specific code of conduct.
However, on a par with the theological professors’ status of experts (see below), the idea of an ecclesiastical ‘power group’ in a country in which the management of ecclesiastical affairs was in the hands of the king faced poten- tial conflicts with the royal power.21
17 Mödersheim, “Theologia Cordis,” and Bach-Nielsen, “Emblematics,” 44–50.
18 Regarding the emblems in Vroue, see J. Jensen, “Christen Pedersen Lyngbye.”
19 Bierende, “Cranachs Luther,” 26–30.
20 The notion of Sonderbewusstsein is coined by Luise Schorn-Schütte in her Evange- lische Geistlichkeit. She does not, however, discuss the significance of visual culture for this concept.
21 While the findings of Schorn-Schütte do not wholly correspond to Denmark where the clergy was less eager to transform their Sonderbewusstsein into, say, criticizing the king, the failed attempts from leading clergymen to secure a ‘free’ church by installing an archbishop both at Christian III’s ascension to power and at the introduction of Absolutism around 1660 tell us that Danish theologians did not think of themselves as having no prerogative to polit- ical power (even if they had not). One should note, however, that the woodcut was not printed in Denmark but in Saxony. Here, stressing clerical Sonderbewusstsein was much more politically potent than in Denmark.
8 Introduction
The woodcut is a good example of a nascent geistliches Sonderbewusstsein within Lutheranism. Similar cases exist. Thomas Kaufmann has demonstrated that it flourished in the Rostock pastoral milieu during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century, and Sivert Angel has showed its ramifications in late sixteenth-century Württemberg.22 At Hemmingsen’s funeral we encounter it again, in textual and in visual form. If we are to believe Hemmingsen’s eight- eenth-century biographer, Erik Pontoppidan (1698–1764), the once-professor- and-now-canon had an “erbauliches Ende.” He died the good death, following the principles of ars moriendi (see below chapter 3 at pp. 116–18). While sing- ing Psalm 103 he received the sacrament; bystanders at his deathbed were sur- prised by the force of his prayer. Eventually, his soul “sanfft und seelig ausfuhr,” as Pontoppidan wrote.23
Attended by the clergy of the diocese of Zealand and representatives from the university, Hemmingsen’s funeral took place in the Cathedral of Roskilde.
This church, however, was no ordinary cathedral. Frederik II had recently re- furbished the church as a sepulchral church for his own house (see below chap- ter 1 at pp. 35–36), and Hemmingsen was indeed interred close to the power – quite fitting for one who spent his life in the service of this power. There is no account of his funeral but it is likely that it proceeded according to the customs of funerals for high-ranking persons: a procession accompanied the bier with the coffin, carried by Hemmingsen’s brethren, through the streets of Roskilde to the church, which they encircled before they entered it.
In the church a funeral sermon of course was delivered. This sermon deliv- ered in Latin by Peder Winstrup is kept in an eighteenth-century transcript in the Royal Library in Copenhagen, and it focuses on Hemmingsen the pastor as a true Christian preacher. Winstrup had chosen 2 Tim 4 as the text for his ser- mon, the locus classicus for commending preachers.24 Accordingly, Winstrup praised Hemmingsen as the ideal Christian man: his life and deeds were a tes- timony that he fought the good fight, his service to the school and the church a sign that he finished the race, and his piety demonstrated a lively faith (cf. 2 Tim 4:7).
At the conclusion of the funeral sermon, Winstrup utilized another Refor- mation image that also was central to Hemmingsen, namely, that of a worker in the Lord’s Vineyard. Hemmingsen being the “Light of Denmark” and a
“Profitable Tool for the Church of God,” Winstrup gave praise to God that he
22 Kaufmann, Universität, 165–66; Angel, Confessionalist Homiletics, 29–38 and 123–
29.
23 Regarding the death and funeral of Hemmingsen and the sources to this, see M. S.
Sommer, “The Construction of a Seventeenth-Century Protestant Memory,” 151–58. Re- garding the funeral ritual, see Troels-Lund, Dagligt Liv i Norden, VII, 369–475.
24 See on the use of 2 Tim 4 in clergy funerals Angel, “Preachers as Paul.” Hemmingsen himself also used 2 Tim 4 when he in the Postilla spoke of the dutiful preacher (see below chapter 4).
A. Approaching the Expert 9 had called forth “such Capable and Salutary Workers to His Vineyard.” Be- yond doubt, the superintendent used the same discourse that Hemmingsen did in his writings to describe a pious life of a preacher, as will be shown in this study.
Hemmingsen’s slab in the cathedral is another aspect that is central to the memory of the professor. A monument such as Hemmingsen’s slab is not placed in a church as art for the sake of art but seeks to communicate a contex- tualized message.25 This message first and foremost centres on the act of re- membering the deceased person. However, the act of remembering is concur- rently an act of doing, of activating the memory in the lives of those left behind.
By a process of essentializing the deeds of the deceased according to a rhetor- ical and gestural scheme, a monument has the purpose of establishing or pre- serving social identity.
While the funeral sermon by Winstrup described Hemmingsen in more gen- eral terms, the monument focuses on a specific aspect of Hemmingsen as pas- tor, namely, the instructor role. This is even reflected in Hemmingsen’s own methodological considerations about the relationship between exegesis and preaching.
According to his definitions in the De Methodis (see below at pp. 98–99), one cannot make any sharp distinction between the two. Hence a pastor will be both a preacher and a teacher. Appropriately, the slab depicts Hemmingsen the pastor as the teacher of sacred doctrine (see figure 5). The stone, ravaged by the centuries, can only be studied in detail via graphic reproductions. It consists of two parts. Above, an educational scene is depicted. Below, a Latin inscrip- tion. The educational scene is placed in a vaulted lecture hall. Praising Hem- mingsen, who is depicted as a bearded, gown-wearing man holding a book in his hands and sitting by an elevated lectern, the vault has an Agnus Dei and a Vulgata quotation from Dan 12:3b on it: “those who lead many to righteous- ness, shall shine like the stars forever and ever.” Around the lectern are ten male listeners, some of them taking notes, and some sitting on stools. The scene, representing the ideal lecture by Hemmingsen at Copenhagen, is framed by two memento mori, a skull to the left, and an hourglass to the right.
According to Doreen Zerbe, the rhetorical positioning of an instructor (book in hand, lecture hall, gown) is typical for monuments to scholars across the early modern confessions, and Hemmingsen is no exception.26 Rather than staging him in a confessional setting, the depiction simply presents Hem- mingsen as a member of the learned estate. As a kind of visual commentary to the Biblical reference in Winstrup’s text about being a good worker in the
25 Regarding the function of material memory, see Zerbe, “‘Ein frölich urstend’,” 92, and Zerbe, “Memorialkunst,” 122–24.
26 Zerbe, “Memorialkunst,” 136–37.
10 Introduction
Lord’s Vineyard and to Dan 12:3b, the two reminders of the ever-present death tell the spectator that Hemmingsen’s life was a particularly well-used one.
Knowing that death eventually would reach him, he never hesitated to lead many to righteousness by being a prolific author and professor. This interpre- tation fits very well with the inscription on the lower end of the stone, which in a way comments on Dan 12:3a: “those who are wise shall shine like the brightness of the sky.” Raising Hemmingsen as a symbol of Danish might and erudition in Europe, in English translation the stone reads:
Here lie the Ashes of the Canon in Roskilde, Doctor Niels Hemmingsen, through a Felicific and Diligent Work in the University of Copenhagen being the First to promote the Study of Arts and Languages to the Benefit of Many. Having been appointed as a Professor of The- ology, he threw Light on the Prophetic and Apostolic Scriptures by Means of his Methodo- logical Brevity and Clarity, so that he was Admired not only by Ours, but of All the Learned in Europe. Contrary to his Expectation, he was involved in the Fatal Controversies of the Theologians, but Divine Benignity kept [his] Innocence. After he was granted a Happy Re- tirement from his Prolonged Endeavours in the School, he – Old and Full of Years – counted the Troubles of Mortals as Empty. Commending his Spirit to God the Saviour, he dies in Firm Faith in the Year 1600, on the Twenty-Third Day of May. The Widow and the Heirs placed the Monument of this Highly Deserving Man.27
Through Winstrup’s funeral sermon and the slab, together with the Biblical discourse derived from 2 Tim and Dan 12, the lieu de mémoire of Hemmingsen constructed at his death objectify him as the light that shines on forever. Con- sistent with the woodcut from Pastor, the early modern memory of the clerical Hemmingsen revolves around notions of learning, leadership, and faithful- ness.28 According to this representation of Hemmingsen, he lived ‘Bible’: his actions, his look, his very existence was derived from and sanctioned in the Bible. Rather unsurprisingly, these were ideas that Hemmingsen himself pro- moted in his handbook of the life and actions of a pastor (see below chapter 4).
Yet the image of the internationally renowned expert pastor is but one side of Hemmingsen’s biography. The other side is that of a Danish theological expert, or confessionalizing agent. From very early on in his career, the Danish kings employed Hemmingsen’s service, for example, when a clarification on the Eucharistic theology was called for in the mid-1550s, when a rising number of Dutch immigrants came to Denmark in the late 1560s, or when advice con- cerning an aristocrat convicted of murder was needed in the early 1580s. With his advice, he became paramount in shaping the ideology behind the politics of the Crown. Scholars have not been hesitant to see the politics backed by
27 Translation from M. S. Sommer, “The Construction of a Seventeenth-Century Protestant Memory,” 156–57. See the original Latin text in figure 5. Like the visual presen- tation of Hemmingsen on the upper end of the stone, the inscription does not give any ac- count of Hemmingsen marked by confession. Rather, it positions him as a learned man.
28 Regarding similar cases, see Rasmussen, “Early Modern Pastor,” 217.
Index of Names and Places
a Lasco, John 36–39, 41, 63 Adolf, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-
Gottorf 44, 47
Albrecht of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz 170
Ambrose 180
Andersen, Niels Knud 31, 51, 62 Andersen, Svend 16–17, 32
Andreae, Jacob 44, 58–59, 61–64, 162, 196
Angel, Sivert 8, 116–17, 163 Appold, Kenneth 15, 22–23, 25 Aristotle 87, 178
Asmundsen, Tyge 136
Astorri, Paolo 169–70, 172, 174, 185, 186
Augsburg 49, 169–70
August, Elector of Saxony 3, 20, 43–45, 53, 56, 61–63, 161–62, 164, 174 Augustine 59, 86, 120, 180–81, 191 Austin, J. L. 22
Azpilcueta, Martín de 186 Bach-Nielsen, Carsten 7, 36 Baltic Sea 2–3, 40, 47–48 Barnekow, Kjell 14–15, 67, 109 Bast, Robert James 134, 147, 158, 160 Behrendt, Walter 74, 125
Benedicht, Laurentz 153–54, 156 Bernard, Saint 109, 180–81, 196 Beyer, Jürgen 136
Bologna 170
Bourdieu, Pierre 1, 19, 22 Brahe, Tycho 52–53 Braunschweig 20, 44, 164
Brenz, Johannes 58–59, 61, 64, 162 Brochmand, Jesper 99
Bruun, Mette Birkedal 137
Bugenhagen, Johann 20, 32–34, 43, 139, 159–160, 168, 190
Burnett, Amy Nelson 5, 135–36, 145 Buscoducensis, Henrik 38, 62 Caesar, Philipp 185
Calixt, Georg 163
Calvin, John 18, 58, 61–64, 67, 79, 80–
85, 92–94, 112–14, 126, 128, 131–
32, 139, 170–71, 174–75, 184–86, 190, 192, 196
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 36, 42–43, 89, 173
Christian I, King of Denmark 2, 35–36 Christian II, King of Denmark 31, 33,
42, 162
Christian III, King of Denmark 3, 7, 15, 20, 29–32, 34–37, 42, 46–47, 50, 53, 56–58, 62–63, 119, 139, 148, 150–
51, 154, 156–58, 160, 162–63, 168, 171–74, 177, 184, 190, 192–93 – as Duke of Holstein 30, 43
Christian IV, King of Denmark 64, 162, 188
Chrysostomus 180
Chrysostomus, Oluf 3, 100, 139 Cicero 86, 178
Constantine the Great, Roman Emperor 177
Copenhagen 1, 3–4, 8, 11–12, 20–21, 30–33, 37, 39, 40, 42, 51, 58, 60–64, 100–101, 117, 135, 149, 153–54, 166, 194
– Church of Our Lady 20–21, 34–35, 119
– University of 1, 3, 9–11, 16, 20, 38, 40, 51–53, 67, 122, 160, 167, 171, 187
224 Index of Names and Places Cramer, Daniel 6–7
Cranach, Lucas the Younger 4, 7, 36, 149
Dahlerup, Troels 170–71, 186 David, Biblical Figure 107, 110–12,
154, 159, 165, 177
Davis, Natalie Zemon 20, 22, 151–52 Delmenhorst 2, 40
Denmark, kingdom of 2, 3, 7–8, 10–11, 13–18, 22, 24, 29–65, 68, 80, 117–
19, 156–62, 167, 189, 191, 193–94, 196
Dietrich, Veit 136 Dingel, Irene 14, 18, 60, 63 Dithmarschen 2, 47, 153 Dresden 44, 62–63
Dreyer, Rasmus H. C. 30–31, 157 Eck, Johann 170, 174
Elizabeth, Queen of England 48, 63, 194
Elsinore see Helsingør Emden 36, 38
England, kingdom of 36, 64, 77, 186 Erasmus of Rotterdam 42, 67–68, 76,
85–94, 100, 103, 124, 130, 139, 148, 190, 196
Erik XIV, King of Sweden 47 Erll, Astrid 4
Estes, James M. 46, 70, 72, 75–76 Feddersen, Ernst 50, 54, 64 France, Kingdom of 43, 45, 57 Frandsen, Hans 52, 61 Frankfurt an der Oder 172
Frederik I, King of Denmark 2, 30–31, 42, 157, 160, 162
Frederik II, King of Denmark 3, 8, 15, 20, 24, 29, 34–35, 39–45, 47–50, 52–53, 59, 62–63, 68, 87, 100, 119, 150–51, 153–54, 156, 159–64, 167–
68, 190, 193–94 – as Duke of Holstein 44, 63 Friedrich, Elector of Saxony 116, 160 Friis, Johan 20, 174, 188
Fulgentius of Ruspe, Saint 109–10 Fuller, Thomas 3
Füssel, Marian 20–22
Gehring, David Scott 30, 48, 54 Geneva 14, 17, 63, 82–83, 94, 170–71,
184, 187 Gerhard, Johann 185 Gerson, Jean 139, 169
Glebe-Møller, Jens 15, 63, 65, 173–74, 187–88
Glædemark, H. J. H. 32 Golding, Arthur 166 Gøye, Birgitte 119, 121–22 Grane, Leif 14, 30, 43, 52–53, 191 Gratian 180
Gregory I, Pope 145 Gregory VII, Pope 86
Gregory Nazianzen 145, 147, 183 Grell, Ole Peter 30–31, 38, 52–53 Grimma 122
Grinder-Hansen, Poul 36, 153 Grundtvig, N. F. S. 193
Gustav I Vasa, King of Sweden 47 Güstrow 63
Haderslev 30, 47, 58 Hagen, Kenneth 97–98 Hamm, Berndt 149 Heckel, Johannes 46 Helmstedt 137, 163 Helsingør 35, 41–42, 122
Henry VIII, king of England 77, 89–90 Herlufsholm 119, 122
Hesse 43, 44
Hezekiah, Biblical figure 157, 160, 165, 177
Hiebsch, Sabine 72, 104
Holstein as part of the Holy Roman Em- pire 2, 43–44, 64, 65
Holy Roman Empire 2, 4, 23–24, 29, 31–32, 34, 39, 43–44, 47, 53, 55, 58, 74, 98, 118, 125, 150, 160, 163, 192, 196–97
Höpfl, Harro 80–83 Hornejus, Konrad 137 Hus, Jan 73
Hutchinson, Eric 68, 130 Ingesman, Per 11, 24, 56–57, 146 Ingolstadt 170
Innocent III, Pope 145, 147–48
Index of Names and Places 225
James VI and I, King of England and Scotland 68
Jensen, Frede P. 40, 45 Jerome 86, 180–81 Jerusalem 88, 107–108
Jesus of Nazareth 12, 21, 104, 106, 119, 125, 128, 131–32, 164, 175–76, 182 Johann Friedrich, Elector of Saxony 32,
160, 177
John Casimir, Elector Palatine 164 John Damascene 59
Johnson, Trevor 1–2
Josiah, Biblical figure 157, 160, 165, 177
Justin Martyr 59 Kaas, Niels 188
Karlstadt, Andreas Bodenstein von 39, 170
Kaufmann, Thomas 1–2, 8, 14, 24–25, 53, 145, 170, 186, 196–97 Kjær, Morten 16–17, 30, 32, 45, 129–
30, 166, 185
Kolb, Robert 11–12, 16, 47, 102–103 Kolding 37, 58
Kolding, Niels Nielsen 52, 151, 153–56, 195
Kornerup, Bjørn 41, 48–50, 122, 139 Lactantius 180–81
Lane, Jason D. 175 Łaski, Jan see a Lasco, John
Lausten, Martin Schwarz 3, 38, 43, 45–
47, 73, 80, 139, 171–73
Leipzig 4–5, 11, 17, 59–60, 161, 164, 166, 194
Leucorea see Wittenberg Lindhardt, P. G. 167
Lockhart, Paul Douglas 33, 45, 47–48, 63, 159
London 11, 36–37, 45, 89, 166, 185 Lorck, Melchior 36
Lotz-Heumann, Ute 25, 56, 194 Low Countries 38–40, 44–45, 57, 89 Lund 35, 62, 136, 171
Luther, Martin 3, 7, 13–16, 18, 23, 32, 39, 42, 46–47, 50, 53–54, 57–60, 62, 67–76, 79–80, 82, 84–86, 88, 90, 92–94, 97, 99–100, 103–104, 106–
107, 110–11, 116, 125, 128, 135, 138, 140, 148–50, 153, 163, 170–71, 175, 180, 186–87, 189, 190, 192–93, 195–96
Lyby, Thorkild 51, 160
Macalpine, John 20, 51, 100, 171–72 Maeße, Jens 19, 195
Magdeburg 103, 139, 170 Major, Georg 139–40 Malmø 31
Margaret I, Queen of Denmark 35 Marshall, Peter 116
Mary, Queen of England 36
Mattox, Mickey L. 68, 70, 72–73, 84, 97, 104
Maurer, Wilhelm 74–75, 147 Maxfield, John A. 72–74, 93, 99 Mecklenburg 36, 44
Meißen 122
Melanchthon, Philipp 3, 14–16, 18, 32, 39, 44, 46–47, 50, 54, 57, 60, 62, 67, 70, 73–82, 84–85, 87, 92–94, 98, 100, 116, 126, 128, 131–32, 138–40, 158, 171–74, 185–86, 189–90, 192, 196
Menius, Justus 74, 79, 80, 125 Moore, Cornelia Niekus 116, 118 Moritz, Elector of Saxony 43, 174 Moses, Biblical figure 126–27, 133,
165, 172
Munch Madsen, Erik 14–15, 18, 39, 67–
68, 108, 115, 126, 131–32, 190 Münster 38, 76
Müntzer, Thomas 46, 175 Næstved 119, 122 Naumburg 48, 122 Nero, Roman Emperor 159 North Sea 40
Norway, kingdom of 2, 33, 40, 47 Nuremberg 136, 170
Oecolampadius, Johannes 39, 52 Oldenburg, county of 2, 40 Oxe, Peder 62
Palladius, Niels 35, 136
Palladius, Peder 37–38, 51, 100, 118–
19, 123, 171–72
226 Index of Names and Places Paul, Biblical figure 8, 11, 21, 77, 81,
83, 87, 89, 100, 102, 111, 117–18, 121, 124, 127, 140–41, 144, 146, 155, 159
Peterson, Luther D. 79–80, 92 Plato 110, 178
Pohlig, Matthias 2, 56, 104, 196–97 Pontano, Giovanni 85, 129, 130 Pontoppidan, Erik 8
Pratensis, Johannes 52–53 Ramus, Petrus 51–52 Rantzau, Heinrich 40 Rantzau, Johann 31
Rasmussen, Tarald 10, 98, 103, 136, 148
Reinkingk, Dietrich 23 Reravius, Rasmus 17, 125, 166 Resen, Hans Poulsen 64–65 Rexroth, Frank 19–20, 22 Rivius, Johann 136 Robinson, Richard 107–108 Roger, Thomas 185 Rome 45, 83, 86, 88, 91
Roskilde 4, 8, 10, 64, 122, 145, 151 – Cathedral of 3–4, 8–10, 17, 35, 64,
148
Rud, Otte 117, 119, 123–24, 131 Saxony, Ducal (Albertine) 79 Saxony, Ducal (Ernestine) 44 Saxony, Electoral (Albertine) 3, 7, 15,
29, 43–45, 49, 51, 53, 57, 61–64, 107, 122, 140, 148, 161–62, 193, 194
Saxony, Electoral (Ernestine) 30, 32, 43, 54, 56, 160
Schilling, Heinz 24, 45, 68
Schleswig, duchy of 30, 58, 65, 163, 139
Schleswig-Holstein, duchies of 2, 64 Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorf, duchy of
44, 47
Schmidt, Heinrich Richard 24, 56 Schmidt, Steffie 1
Schmoeckel, Mathias 76, 80–81, 85, 98, 170–71, 180, 186
Schorn-Schütte, Luise 7, 68, 74, 92, 150, 192
Schottenloher, Karl 152
Schröder-Stapper, Teresa 19–20, 22 Schurff, Hieronymus 172–73 Schwenkfeld, Kaspar 58 Seneca 80–81, 93 Severinus, Petrus 52 Sinning, Jens Andersen 100 Sixtus IV, Pope 160 Solon 179
Sommer, Mattias Skat 3–4, 8, 10, 16, 32, 57, 60, 64, 93, 129–30, 147, 166, 185
Sommer, Wolfgang 23, 163 Spain, kingdom of 45
Stephen, Biblical figure 101–103, 111 Summenhart, Konrad 170, 174 Svane, Hans 196
Sweden, kingdom of 33, 47, 119, 153, 193
Swiss Confederation 4, 31, 38, 170 Switzerland see Swiss Confederation Tamm, Ditlev 16
Tausen, Hans 99, 157
Theodosius, Roman Emperor 177 Torslunde 149
Trolle, Herluf 117–23, 133 Tübingen 52, 170
Ulrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow 44
Vautrollier, Thomas 166 Vedel, Anders Sørensen 35 Venge, Mikael 43 Viborg 7, 31
Vind, Anna 99, 106–107
Vives, Juan Luis 67–68, 85, 89–92, 94, 128, 133, 143, 158, 190, 192 Vögelin, Ernst 4, 161–62, 164, 166, 194 Vormordsen, Frands 171–72
Wengert, Timothy J. 16, 47, 76–78 Westphal, Siegrid 54–55
Winstrup, Peder 3, 4, 8–10, 146 Witte, Jr., John 16, 46, 75, 76 Wittenberg 3–4, 7, 11–12, 14–18, 22,
29–32, 36, 38–39, 41–42, 46–54, 57–58, 60, 62, 65, 67–68, 70, 72–74,
Index of Names and Places 227
92–94, 100–101, 107, 119, 135, 149, 160–61, 166–67, 170, 172, 174, 187, 189
Wolgast, Eike 16, 47 Württemberg 8, 44, 122, 197
Zacchaeus, Biblical figure 181–82 Zerbe, Doreen 9
Zwingli, Huldrych 39
Subject Index
Agents of confessionalization 2, 10–11, 17, 24–25, 56, 193
Apology to the Augsburg Confession 50, 54, 60, 78, 138
Assertiones de magistratus 167–68 Assertiones de officio parentvm 134 Assertiones de quinto praecepto 13 Augsburg Confession 2, 15, 39, 41, 44,
48, 49, 54, 57, 60, 62–63, 103, 162, 191, 193
Augsburg religious settlement 23, 38, 44, 48
Banks 169–70, 184
Biblical exegesis 9, 11–12, 13, 72, 97–
99, 101, 104, 106–109, 111, 119, 125, 128, 175, 185, 186 Book of Concord 15, 64, 193 Book prefaces 4, 5, 11, 34, 46, 59–61,
77, 99, 119, 136, 140–41, 151–64, 165–68, 185
Branding strategy 35–36, 74, 99, 153–
64
Calling 70, 74, 77, 97–134, 137, 148, 154, 156, 159, 177, 186
Calvinism see Reformed Protestantism Canon law 1, 16, 69, 74–75, 169–71,
180, 182, 184, 186, 187 Chastity 21, 138, 142–43, 149, 165 Christne Menniskis Aandelige Strid oc
Seieruinding 116, 123–24 Church ordinance (Denmark) see
Kirkeordinansen
Classical philosophy 52, 68, 80, 87, 100, 156, 181
Commemoration and collective memory 3, 4, 7, 9, 35–36, 61–62, 73, 101–
104, 115–17
– of Hemmingsen 4–10, 62, 64, 147, 189
Commentaria in omnes epistolas 60, 159–63
Commentary see Biblical exegesis Common priesthood 69–70, 80, 82 Commonwealth 32, 55–56, 75, 77, 83,
87, 89–91, 122, 166, 171
Confessional culture 14–15, 18, 24–25, 53, 193–94, 196–97
Confessionalization 2, 11, 15, 17–18, 23–25, 30, 56–57, 64, 193–94, 196–
97
Controversy as theological culture 52–
54, 64, 196–97 Copia 86–87
Coronation ceremony 34–36, 43, 46, 158, 159, 168, 190
Cura religionis 72, 78, 80, 156, 158 Custos utriusque tabulae, secular au-
thority as 129, 153–54
Danish civil war 31–32, 52, 55, 171, 184
De Besynderligste Historier 151, 153–
56
De pacificatione 91–92
Death 8, 10, 76, 103, 109, 111, 115–25, 129–30, 135, 147
Decalogue 12, 13, 76, 78, 82–83, 85, 105, 111, 127, 129, 131, 166, 183 Decretum Gratiani 180
Discipline of the church 60, 83, 105, 130, 146, 160, 162
230 Subject Index Discursive power 1–2, 7, 19–23, 25,
193–94
Disputation 11, 13, 16, 20, 22, 31, 51, 167, 170, 194
Doctoral promotion 20–22, 119, 167 Early Christian creeds 59–60, 161, 162 Early church 75, 87, 169, 191 Emblems and emblematic culture 4–7 Enarratio as exegetical method 97–99,
137–40, 146–47
Enarratio psalmi vigesimi qvinti 107–
15, 120–21, 124, 125
Enarrationes in Genesin see Luther’s Genesis Lectures
Enchiridion (Erasmus) 88, 124 Enchiridion (Hemmingsen) 12, 133,
139, 172, 174
Ethicae Doctrinae Elementa 75, 79, 80, 173
Ethos of the pastor see also imagery of the pastor 135, 147–50
Experts and expert culture 1–13, 19–20, 25, 38, 40, 97, 135, 138, 148–50, 163, 168, 174, 185, 187–89, 192–95, 197
Eucharist see Lord’s Supper
Fourth Lateran Council 145, 147, 169, 182
Funeral sermons 3–4, 8–10, 103, 116–
25, 131, 137, 146
Geistliches Sonderbewusstsein see also ethos of the pastor, imagery of the pastor, and experts and expert cul- ture 7–8, 148–50, 189, 192, 195, 196 Gnesio-Lutheranism 44, 50
Hausväterliteratur 13, 74, 125 Herluf Trolles begraffuelse 118–23 History and use of the past 35, 85–87,
100–101, 111–12, 158–60, 163, 177–
79, 190, 196
House of Oldenburg 3, 15, 29, 36, 153, 187, 193
Imagery of the pastor 4, 6–7, 10, 135–
50
Immigrants and immigration 10, 36–42, 53, 153
In epistolam divi Iacobi 12, 104, 171, 172, 174–84, 187, 188
Institutes 58, 61, 81–84, 112–13 Interest see also usury 169–88, 192 Introduction of the Reformation in Den-
mark 13, 29–36, 154, 159–60 Islam and Muslims 49, 59, 128 Judaism and Jews 89, 128, 169, 172 Jus reformandi 29, 33
Kirkeordinansen 33–34, 37, 42, 44, 46, 49, 54–55, 57, 105, 117, 138–39, 146
Landesherrliches Kirchenregiment 30, 46, 55, 80
Late Middle Ages 23, 68, 147, 169–70, 178
Legal interpretations of Hemmingsen 16–17
Liffsens Vey 13, 18, 68, 93, 97, 108, 115, 125–33, 137, 142, 145, 190 Loci Communes 54, 60, 76–77, 80, 93,
98, 138, 140–41
Lord’s Supper 3, 10, 20–21, 37–39, 48–
51, 54, 58–64, 70, 116, 129, 149, 161
Lord’s Vineyard 3–4, 8–10, 25, 104–
106, 147, 194
Luther’s Genesis Lectures 67, 69–74, 85, 92, 104, 106, 135
Lutheran saints 103–104, 140, 196 Lutheranism 14–15, 23, 44, 46–47, 53,
63–64, 193, 195–97
– in Denmark 15, 47, 53–55, 63–65, 171–74, 196–97
Maritime and naval metaphors 123–25, 157
Market forces 19, 99, 117, 151–52, 169–71, 186–88, 195
Marriage 16, 36, 61, 71, 121, 123, 125, 130, 143–44, 156
Martial metaphors 124, 143
Merit see also reward 113–15, 131–32
