THE SUSTAINABILITY OF INNOVATION A p r e lim in a r y re s e a rc h agenda on
in n o v a tio n and obsolescence von
H elga Nowotny
I n s t it u t fü r W issenschaftstheorie und W issenschaftsforschung
der U n iv e rs itä t Wien
Juni 1989
Die A rb e it s k iz z ie r t e in ig e th e o re tisch e Vorfragen zu einem möglichen Forschungsprojekt, das sich zum Z ie l setzen würde, die Bedingungen fü r d ie "L a n g le b ig k e it" von Innovationen zu untersuchen.
(1) Im ersten T e il werden zumeist ökonomische A rbeiten über "technischer Wandel" und "Innovation" untersucht, wobei auch auf d ie h isto risc h e n Errungenschaften der S ozialw issenschaften und d ie Bedeutung der gegenwärtigen Konzeptualisierung d ie se r Phänomene hingewiesen wird;
(2) a ls il lu s t r a t iv e s B e is p ie l fü r ein e rw e ite rtes Verständnis von
"Innovation" wird auf das Problem des " A b fa lls " a ls ein Problem der k u ltu r e lle n E volutio n eingegangen;
(3) im le tzte n T e il wird fü r eine (neue) Balance zwischen den Prozessen der Innovation und der Obsoleszenz argum entiert, wenn d ie E n tsch ei
dung unserer technischen Z iv ila t io n fü r eine fo rtg e s e tz te , haltbare und la n g le b ig e Innovation e in g e lö st werden s o ll.
In einem nächsten e xp lo ra tive n S c h r it t s o ll das Phänomen "Innovation"
aus der S ich t der W issenschafts- und Technikforschung untersucht werden.
This paper provides a short sketch of a p o ssib le research agenda on innovation and obsolence, leading to an in q u iry in to the c o n d itio n s fo r the s u s t a in a b ilit y of in n ovation .
(1) In the f i r s t p a rt, recent work, m ostly by economists, tr y in g to inco rporate tech n o lo g ica l change more d ir e c t ly in to a s o c ia l science framework, is reviewed, whereby the h is t o r ic a l achievements o f the s o c ia l sciences as w ell as the present challenge posed to them by c o n ce p tu a lizin g and o p e ra tio n a liz in g "te ch n o lo g ica l change" and
"innovatio n" are also approached;
(2) as an i l lu s t r a t iv e example of a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon "in n o v a tio n ", the problem of waste as a problem of c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n is presented fo r d iscu ssio n ;
(3) in the la s t p a rt, the argument is put fo rth that the process of innovation and tha t of obsolescence accompanying i t , are to be (re)balanced, i f our te c h n ic a l c i v i l i z a t i o n is to opt fo r the s u s t a in a b ilit y of innovation.
In a subsequent e x p lo ra to ry p a rt, innovation w ill be approached from the p o in t o f view of recent s o c ia l stu d ie s of science and technology.
I . CONFRONTING TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE: THE ANSWER OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES:
I n n o v a t io n c o n t in u e s t o ra n k h ig h as a t o p i c on th e p o l i t i c a l agenda as w e ll as on th e r e s e a r c h agenda o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . What i s meant by i t e s s e n t i a l l y i s th e r o l e p la y e d by t e c h n o lo g ic a l cha n g e and t h e way how e co n o m ic and s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t i s t h e r e b y in f lu e n c e d , i n c l u d in g th e b e h a v io u r o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as f i r m s , and o f i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e a c t o r s a l i k e . E co n o m ic t h e o r y , w h ile b o a s t in g a v e n e r a b le S c h u m p e te ria n t r a d i t i o n , has n e v e r t h e le s s lo n g been c o n f r o n t e d w it h th e c h a rg e o f n e g le c t in g t e c h n i c a l change o r o f t r e a t i n g i t as a m e re ly r e s i d u a l v a r i a b l e ( 1 ) . More r e c e n t l y , h o w e v e r, th e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w it h th e ways how t e c h n o lo g ic a l change has been d e a lt w it h , has g iv e n r i s e t o a v e r i t a b l e e x p lo s io n o f t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p ir ic a l work in e c o n o m ic s , c u lm in a t in g in what i s c a l l e d ''e v o lu t io n a r y e c o n o m ic s " . B ased on a s y s t e m a t ic c r i t i q u e o f o r th o d o x e c o n o m ic s , i t p r o p o s e s n o t h in g le s s and n o t h in g more th a n th e f o r m u la t io n o f an a l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r y on th e r o l e o f t e c h n i c a l change in m ic ro e c o n o m ic b e h a v io u r , p r o c e s s e s o f s t r u c t u r a l cha ng e and d yn am ic a d ju s t m e n ts on th e p a r t o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and a g e n t s , le a d in g t o a m a cro e co n o m ic t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f th e e co n o m ic s y s te m . In a r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n , th e m ain f e a t u r e s o f t h i s a p p ro a c h a re d e s c r ib e d as f o l lo w s :
- T e c h n ic a l change i s a fu n d a m e n ta l f o r c e in s h a p in g th e p a t t e r n s o f t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f th e econom y.
- T h e re a re some m echanism s o f some d yn am ic a d ju s tm e n t w h ich a re r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t in n a t u r e fro m t h o s e a l l o c a t i v e m echanism s p o s t u la t e d by t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y .
- These m echanism s have to do b o th w it h t e c h n i c a l change
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l change o r th e la c k o f i t . As r e g a r d s th e fo r m e r , we s u g g e s t i t i s b o th d is e q u i 1 i b r a t i n g - and a s o u r c e o f o r d e r f o r th e d i r e c t i o n s o f ch a n g e and t h e "d y n a m ic a d ju s tm e n t p r o c e s s e s " , as new t e c h n o lo g ie s d i f f u s e th ro u g h th e n a t io n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n o m ie s . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , d e s p it e i t s f l u c t u a t i o n s and c r i s e s th e w o rld i s a c t u a l l y more s t a b le and b e t t e r o r d e r e d th a n c o u ld be deduced fro m p r e v a i l i n g e co n o m ic t h e o r y .
- The s o c i o - i n s t i t u t i o n a l fra m ew o rk a lw a y s in f lu e n c e s and may so m etim es f a c i l i t a t e and so m e tim e s r e t a r d p r o c e s s e s o f t e c h n i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e , c o o r d i n a t i o n and d yn am ic a d ju s t m e n t. Such a c c e l e r a t i o n and r e t a r d a t i o n e f f e c t s r e l a t e n o t s im p ly t o m a rk e t " i m p e r f e c t i o n s " , b u t t o th e n a t u r e o f th e m a rk e ts t h e m s e lv e s , and t o th e b e h a v io u r o f a g e n ts ( t h a t i s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s a re an in s e p a r a b le p a r t o f th e way th e m a rk e ts w o rk ) ( 2 ) .
H a r d ly s u r p r i s i n g f o r a n o n -e c o n o m is t o r f o r th o s e e c o n o m is ts a q u a in t e d w it h S c h u m p e te r, as th e a u t h o r a d d s, t h i s a tte m p t a t s y s t e m a t iz a t io n i s n e v e r t h e le s s r e m a r k a b le , s in c e i t is a b le t o s y n t h e s iz e th e p io n e e r in g w ork t h a t p re c e d e d i t . A u th o r s l i k e N e ls o n and W in t e r and t h e i r n o t io n o f th e
" t e c h n o lo g i c a l t r a j e c t o r y " and th e w ork o f C h r is t o p h e r Freeman and h is a s s o c ia t e s w it h t h e i r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f th e
" t e c h n o l o g i c a 1-e c o n o m ic p a ra d ig m " have opened th e d o o r f o r a s h i f t in c o n c e p t u a l iz in g t e c h n o lo g ic a l change and in n o v a t io n . Each "p a ra d ig m " e n t a i l s a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r e le v a n t p ro b le m s t h a t m ust be t a c k l e d , th e t a s k s to be f u l f i l l e d , p a t t e r n s o f i n q u i r y , a m a t e r ia l t e c h n o lo g y t o be used and t y p e s o f b a s ic a r t e f a c t s to be d e v e lo p e d and im p ro v e d . T e c h n o lo g ic a l p a ra d ig m s a re s a id t o d e f in e th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r f u r t h e r in n o v a t io n s and some b a s ic p r o c e d u r e s t o e x p l o i t them . They t h e r e f o r e c h a n n e l th e e f f o r t s in c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s r a t h e r th a n in o t h e r s , th u s c r e a t in g a t e c h n o lo g ic a l t r a j e c t o r y , w h ic h can a ls o be d e s c r ib e d as th e a c t i v i t y o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l p r o g r e s s a lo n g th e e co n o m ic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a d e - o f f s d e f in e d by a p a ra d ig m ( 3 ) . I n n o v a t iv e a c t i v i t i e s a re t h e r e f o r e seen as s t r o n g ly s e l e c t i v e , f i n a l i s e d in r a t h e r p r e c is e d i r e c t i o n s , and o f t e n c u m u la t iv e ( 4 ) . What a c c o u n t s f o r th e e m ergen ce o f r e l a t i v e l y o r d e r e d p a t t e r n s o f cha ng e i s seen as stem m ing fro m th e v e ry n a t u r e o f a le a r n in g p r o c e s s w h ic h u n d e r li e s t e c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e s . T h u s, once on i t s way, t h e r e a p p e a r to be m echanism s and p r o c e s s e s w h ich can m a in t a in th e sy stem on a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g p a th f o r q u it e a w h ile .
i n s t i t u t i o n s p e r fo rm a n c e s
O th e r a u t h o r s w it h in th e same a p p ro a c h e m p h a s iz e th e f a c t , t h a t t h e b a la n c e betw een le a r n in g and s e l e c t i o n , in v o lv e d in each e v o lu t i o n a r y p r o c e s s v a r i e s w it h t e c h n o lo g ie s , c o u n t r i e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s and h i s t o r i c a l p e r io d s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a t io n s o f le a r n in g m odes, s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s and le a d t o d i f f e r e n t " e n v ir o n m e n t s " w it h d i f f e r e n t and e v o lu t i o n a r y p a t h s . S i m i l a r c o m b in a t io n s o r b a la n c e s have been g ro u p e d t o g e t h e r as c o n s t i t u t i n g a " r e g im e " , w h ereby each " r e g im e " i s d e f in e d by r e f e r e n c e t o a w h o le s e t o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , b e h a v io u r and th e a c t u a l f u n c t i o n in g o f m a rk e ts w h ic h c h a n n e l th e lo n g - t e r m d y n a m ic s . T hese id e a s draw upon th e F re n c h s c h o o l o f " r e g u l a t i o n " , w h ereby " r e g u l a t i o n " has been a p t ly t r a n s l a t e d as " s o c io - e c o n o m ic t u n in g " in t o E n g lis h . Each re g im e o f r e g u l a t io n is s a id t o be based on p a r t i c u l a r s e l f o r g a n iz in g p r o c e s s e s , w h ic h a re th e m ic r o f o u n d a t io n s o f p a r t i c u l a r fo rm s o f o r g a n i z a t io n o f th e m a jo r m a r k e t s , y i e l d i n g , u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , r e l a t i v e l y r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s o f m a c ro e c o n o m ic g ro w th and t r a n s f o r m a t io n ( 5 ) .
I have d w e lt a t su ch le n g t h on some o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f th e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e in e c o n o m ic s on t e c h n o lo g ic a l change and in n o v a t io n b e c a u s e th e y c o n t a in in a n o v e l way s e v e r a l
" p r o b le m a t iq u e s " w h ic h have been a t th e h e a r t o f s o c i a l in q u i r y and t h e o r y f o r a v e ry lo n g t im e . The f a c t t h a t th e y a re now b e in g a p p ro a c h e d fro m th e s id e o f e c o n o m is t s , u s in g a d i f f e r e n t , and o p e n ly e c l e c t i c , i f n o t e c l e c t i s t i c t e r m in o lo g y , b u t d ra w in g upon a s o l i d c o re o f e m p ir ic a l d a ta and t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e llin g , adds f l e s h - t h a t o f f ir m s and m a r k e t s s , o f i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v io u r - , t o th e dom ain o f f o u n d a t io n s and m a cro e co n o m ic c h a n g e . T h is i s a dom ain w h ic h i s s it u a t e d a t th e i n t e r f a c e o f t e c h n o lo g y in th e m aking and i t s e co n o m ic p r e c o n d it io n s as w e ll as c o n s e q u e n c e s . U n d o u b t e d ly , o t h e r d im e n s io n s o f t h a t i n t e r f a c e w i l l have t o be added o r a re a lr e a d y b e in g added: t h e s o c i a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e c h n o lo g y , f o r in s t a n c e , i s a h o t ly d e b a te d and r e s e a r c h e d a re a in th e r e c e n t s o c io lo g y o f s c ie n c e and t e c h n o lo g y ( 6 ) . O th e r a tte m p ts to im p ro v e o u r c o l l e c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t e c h n o lo g y in th e m aking a re a l s o u n d e r w ay. A s t i l l somewhat f r a g i l e , b u t p r o m is in g s o c io lo g y o f t e c h n o lo g y is e q u a lly s e e k in g n o t o n ly t o fo c u s upon th e s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t e c h n o lo g y , b ut t o accom pany c o n c e p t u a lly and e m p i r i c a l l y i t s g e n e s is and em bedding in th e s o c i a l w o r ld ( 7 ) . O th e r p u b l i c a t i o n s re m in d us t h a t in n o v a t iv e a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o t o n ly o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , b u t c o n s i s t a ls o in s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s and o r g a n i s a t i o n a l fo rm s w h ic h a re " s o c i a l in n o v a t io n s " ( 8 ) . W h ile many i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s can a lr e a d y now be e s t a b lis h e d betw een t h e s e v a r io u s s t r a n d s , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e m ost c h a lle n g i n g q u e s t io n s and p r o b le m - f o r m u la t io n s f o r th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s w i l l have to t a k e a c c o u n t o f a w id e s p e c tru m o f p r o c e s s e s and a c t i v i t i e s , w h ic h span s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s and w h ic h a re a t th e c o re o f in q u i r y o f a l l th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . I see t h e s e c h a lle n g e s a r i s i n g in a t h r e e - f o l d way:
(1 ) h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e a k in g , th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s a re th e c h i l d r e n o f th e e n lig h t e n m e n t b ut a ls o o f th e p r o c e s s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and i t s e f f e c t s . The m a jo r q u e s t io n s w h ic h have d o m in a te d t h e i r em ergence in th e 19th c e n t u r y , b u t w h ic h und er v a r io u s g u is e s and t r a n s f o r m a t io n s have la s t e d w e ll in t o th e p r e s e n t , have been c o n c e rn e d w it h th e p ro b le m o f o r d e r : how o r d e r a r i s e s , m a in t a in s i t s e l f , i s b e in g d is t u r b e d a n d / o r t r a n s f o r m e d . T h u s, a m a jo r p a r t o f i n q u i r y was d ir e c t e d a t e x p l a in in g th e em erge n ce and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f th e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r ; t h e w o rk in g o f th e e co n o m ic o r d e r b a s i c a l l y e q u a te d w ith th e m a r k e t, and th e s o c i a l o r d e r c o m p r is in g i n s t i t u t i o n s as w e ll as in t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . R e l a t i v e l y l a t e a n e w ly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s p h e re in w h ic h o r d e re d p a t t e r n s a re b e in g d is c e r n e d , has been added: th e o r d e r in w h ic h t e c h n o l o g i c a l change m a n if e s t s i t s e l f whose u n d e r ly in g d y n a m ic s i s c a p t u r e d by th e c o n c e p t o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a t io n . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t e x h i b i t s a f f i n i t i e s and o v e r la p p in g s e s p e c i a l l y w it h th e w o rk in g o f th e e co n o m ic o r d e r , b u t e q u a lly v i s i b l y , le a v e s d i s t i n c t i v e m arks and e n t e r s s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith t h e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o r d e r .
(2 ) th e g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , a g a in seen in a lo n g - t e r m h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , i s t h a t th e y have in c o r p o r a t e d what used t o be c a l l e d in th e l a t e 19th c e n t u r y " th e m a s s e s ": by f o l l o w i n g , d e b a t in g and e x p l a in in g th e p r o c e s s e s o f i n t e g r a t i o n and in c o r p o r a t io n o f th e w o rk e r s becom in g c i t i z e n s and b e in g g r a n t e d p o l i t i c a l , as w e ll as s o c i a l r i g h t s ; and th e r i s e and p r o c e s s o f in c o r p o r a t io n o f th e mass con su m ers in what became a mass p r o d u c in g s o c i e t y . The c h a lle n g e w h ic h s t i l l l i e s ahead o f t h e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s in th e l a s t d ecad e o f t h i s c e n t u r y w i l l have t o f o c u s upon th e p r o c e s s e s o f in c o r p o r a t io n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e non-hum an a r t e f a c t s and t h in g s in t o s o c ie t y w h ic h a r e n o t o n ly s c ie n c e - and t e c h n o lo g y - b a s e d , b u t s c ie n c e - and t e c h n o lo g y - in v a d e d . T e c h n o lo g ic a l o b j e c t s and p r o c e s s e s im p a c t upon s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s as do v ir u s e s ; " a r t e f a c t s have p o l i t i c s " (a s L . W inn er b u t i t ) and th e n a t u r a l e n v ir o n m e n t o r what has become o f i t as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f human i n t e r v e n t i o n i s seen as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
a ‘ soc i o -b i o s p h e r e 11 w here n o v e l m echanism s and p r o c e s s e s w i l l have t o be fo u n d in o r d e r to o b t a in a s u s t a in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t ( 9 ) . I t i s th u s a f o r m id a b le c h a lle n g e ahead o f u s , f o r w h ic h new c o n c e p ts w i l l have to be fo u n d as w e ll as n o v e l ways o f s e e in g and a c t i n g . To th e e x t e n t t h a t t e c h n i c a l a r t e f a c t s and t e c h n o s y s te m s o r th e a l t e r e d c o n d i t io n s o f e n v ir o n m e n t a l s u s t a i n a b i l i t y can d e e p ly a l t e r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s betw een i n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i a l g r o u p s , a f f e c t i n s t i t u t i o n a l re s p o n s e s as w e ll as u l t i m a t e l y th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e s y s te m , th e y have a g u ir e d s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and p a r t a k e in th e s o c i a l n a t u r e o f t h i n g s . The ''in v a s io n " o f th e human and s o c i a l w o r ld by non-hum an a r t e f a c t s r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t way o f c o n c e p t u a l iz in g , one in w h ic h th e p r o c e s s e s o f s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i ca 1 t r a n s f o r m a t io n , i t s d r i v i n g f o r c e s and r e s u l t s a re t o be s o l i d l y in c lu d e d and in t e g r a t e d .
(3 ) The s o c i a l s c ie n c e s have a lw a y s - in ways w h ich a re o f t e n n o t c l e a r l y r e c o g n iz e d - been a ls o d e e p ly c o n c e rn e d w ith p r o c e s s e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t io n w h ich t a k e p la c e in s o c i e t a l tim e and s p a c e . Space i s p e rh a p s th e more e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e d im e n s io n , s in c e e co n o m ic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t a k e p la c e l o c a l i z e d , in r e g io n s , c i t i e s o r th e c o u n t r y - s id e ; n a t io n s t a t e s a re bound in t o t e r r i t o r i a l r e g im e s ; p e o p le and i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e l o c a l i z e d o r move a b o u t. The te m p o ra l d im e n s io n , h o w e v e r, i s o f t e n o b s c u re d by th e somewhat e x c e s s iv e fo c u s on s h o r t - t e r m p r o c e s s e s and by th e o b s e r v a t io n a l and a n a l y t i c t e c h n iq u e o f h o ld in g c o n s t a n t , i . e . a- t e m p o r a l, th e b a c k g ro u n d a g a in s t w h ic h change i s b e in g o b s e rv e d and m easured ( 1 0 ) . Y e t , t e c h n o lo g ic a l change is c l o s e l y lin k e d to te m p o ra l s t r u c t u r e s and p r o c e s s e s , a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s tim e and c o n f l i c t s a b o u t t im e .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e an a d d i t i o n a l m e r it o f th e r e c e n t w ork on t e c h n o l o g i c a l in n o v a t io n t h a t i t e x p l i c i t l y in c lu d e s th e tim e d im e n s io n o p e n in g t h e way f o r a more s y s t e m a t ic a d v a n ce in t h e o r i z i n g in t h i s c r u c i a l a r e a . The tim e d im e n s io n is in c lu d e d in a t l e a s t t h r e e w a y s -
- th e e v o lu t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e , w h ic h a l lo w s , a t l e a s t in p r i n c i p l e to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een s h o r t - t e r m , m ediu m -term and lo n g - t e r m p r o c e s s e s . T h is le a d s to th e im p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n betw een " f a s t " and " s lo w " v a r i a b l e s and th e d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f change th e y c r e a t e , t h e l i m i t s o f b e in g a b le t o in f lu e n c e th e m ;
- th e p r i n c i p l e o f i r r e v e r s a b i 1 i t y a t l e a s t w i t h in t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f a t e c h n o l o g i ca 1-e c o n o m ic p a ra d ig m , w h ic h is in h e r e n t in th e n o t io n o f a t e c h n o lo g ic a l t r a j e c t o r y and w h ich r a i s e s q u e s t io n s as t o how th e p a s t a c t s upon th e p r e s e n t ( in f a c t , t h e r e seem to be s t r o n g h y s t e r e s i s e f f e c t s ) ;
- by a c k n o w le d g in g b a s ic u n c e r t a in t y w it h re g a rd to th e f u t u r e , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a f u t u r e shaped by and d e p e n d e n t upon a c t io n s ta k e n in th e p r e s e n t becomes an a re a o f in q u i r y in i t s own r i g h t ;
- f i n a l l y , th r o u g h th e c o n c e p t o f " s e l f - o r g a n i s a t i o n " , d e s p it e i t s f a s h io n a b le r i n g , a n o th e r c r u c i a l t e n e t o f s o c i a l s c ie n c e t h e o r y i s in t r o d u c e d : th e u n i n t e n t io n a l n a t u r e o f many s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . The s e 1f - o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s e s p r e s e n t in th e in n o v a t o r y p r o c e s s e s a re e s s e n t i a l l y p r e s e n t e d as b e in g
u n i n t e n t i o n a l . N o n - c o llu s i v e a g e n ts by a c t in g each a c c o r d in g t o h i s ’ h e r g o a ls d e s i r e s , m o t iv e s e t c . p ro d u c e ou tco m es w h ich go in c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s and n o t in t o o t h e r s : th e t r a j e c t o r y is a d ir e c t e d p r o c e s s , b u t n o t an i n t e n t i o n a l n o r a p la n n e d one. The outcom e i s bound t o d i f f e r fro m th e avowed i n t e n t i o n s o f th e a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t and fro m th e p la n s ( 1 1 ) .
On a d e e p e r , e p is t e m o lo g ic a l l e v e l , we a re a ls o q u i t e a b i t rem oved fro m th e c l a s s i c a l homo o e c o n o m ic u s . L e a r n in g p r o c e s s e s , as t h e y a re h y p o t h e s iz e d in in n o v a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s , c a n n o t be e x p la in e d s o l e l y by r e l y i n g upon c o m p u t a t io n a l o r in f o r m a t io n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f th e a c t o r s , b u t have t o draw upon t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e c o m p e te n c e , in a c o g n i t i v e as w e ll as in a s o c i a l s e n s e .
When th e n a t u r e o f th e in n o v a t iv e p r o c e s s i s t h u s seen as i r r e v e r s i b l e , a t l e a s t w i t h in th e b o u n d a r ie s im posed by th e t e c h n o - e c o n o m ic p a ra d ig m o r th e " r e g im e ” , i t in d u c e s , s t im u l a t e s , b u t a ls o c o n s t r a in s a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h a re p o s s i b l e . By b e in g c o n c e p t u a liz e d as m oving fo r w a r d in tim e a lo n g a h y p o t h e t ic a l
" e v o lu t io n a r y p a t h ” , so m e th in g m ust a ls o be l e f t b e h in d w h ich no lo n g e r a p p e a rs p o s s i b l e u n d e r th e new re g im e . W h ile th e lim e l i g h t in r e a l l i f e as w e ll as in r e s e a r c h i s u s u a l l y on th e
" w in n e r s " , n e v e r t h e le s s we can a ls o le a r n s o m e th in g a b o u t th e
" l o s e r s " f a d in g away in t h e i r shadow . The r e v e r s e s id e o f th e in n o v a t o r y p r o c e s s i s , as I have a rg u e d e x t e n s i v e l y e ls e w h e r e , th e p r o c e s s o f o b l i t e r a t i o n and o f o b s o le s c e n c e ( 1 3 ) . The p r o d u c t io n o f " w in n e r s " n o t o n ly e n t a i l s a l s o t h a t o f " l o s e r s " , e s p e c i a l l y in su ch a c o m p e t it iv e e n v ir o n m e n t as t h a t o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a t io n and w o r ld - w id e e co n o m ic c o m p e t it io n . S u c c e s s f u l in n o v a t iv e a c t i v i t i e s in some a r e a s g iv e r i s e to d e p re s s e d a re a s in o t h e r p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y o r th e w o r ld . The demand f o r new s k i l l s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s means t h a t o t h e r s k i l l s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a re b e in g r e e v a lu a t e d and in d a n g e r o f becom in g o b s o le t e . W ith th e a r r i v a l o f new p r o d u c t s , o t h e r s a re t u r n in g in t o w a ste e t c . A h ig h l y v i s i b l e s id e o f th e s u c c e s s f u l and a c c e le r a t e d r a t e o f i n d u s t r i a l in n o v a t io n a r e th e e q u a lly m o u n tin g heaps o f w a ste p r o d u c t s - fro m th e m ost t o x i c ones to mere " r u b b is h ( 1 3 ) .
I f I t u r n in th e f o l l o w i n g s e c t io n t o th e p ro b le m o f " w a s t e " , so m e re ly as an i l l u s t r a t i v e exa m p le o f th e k in d o f q u e s t io n s w h ic h can be r a is e d in s e e in g b o th p r o c e s s e s - t h a t o f in n o v a t io n and t h a t o f o b s o le s c e n c e - as a p ro b le m o f c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n . The e xam p le i s p u t f o r t h as i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r what an im a g in a r y r e s e a r c h agenda m ig h t lo o k l i k e . B ut as th e t h i r d s e c t io n w i l l show, th e agenda i s s t i l l t o be r e - d e f i n e d .
I I . The p ro b le m o f was t e - a p r o b l em of c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n ?
The F re n c h a r c h a e o lo g is t Andre" L e r o i- G o u r h a n p r o v id e s th e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f human s e t t le m e n t s as t h e y have been r e c o n s t r u c t e d fro m s e v e r a l s i t e s fo u n d b o th in th e S o v ie t U nio n
and in F r a n c e , b e lo n g in g to d i f f e r e n t p e r io d s o f human e v o lu t i o n ( 1 4 ) . In th e f i r s t c a s e , th e t h r e e r e c o n s t r u c t e d human s e t t le m e n t s d a t in g fro m th e tim e o f t h e M o u s t e r ie n , a l l c o n s i s t o f a c e n t r a l dom ain w h ich ''h o u s e s " th e f i r e p l a c e s . They a re r e l a t i v e l y f r e e fro m a n im a l l e f t - o v e r s , b u t abound in s t o n e - t o o l s . The c e n t r a l dom ain i s s u rro u n d e d by a r a t h e r d en se b e l t o f b ro k e n and s c ra p e d o f f b o n e s . A l l in a l l , th e r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f f e r s a p o o r s ig h t : a p p a r e n t ly N e a n d e r t h a l man l i v e d s u rro u n d e d by th e l e f t - o v e r s o f h is h u n t in g b o o t y , w h ich he j u s t pushed to w a rd s th e o u t s id e in o r d e r to have some sp a ce to l i v e in . When c o m p a rin g t h i s p ic t u r e t o th e one o f s e t t le m e n t s d a t in g fro m a b o u t 30 000 80, a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t e m e rg e s. One o f them , fo u n d in th e c a v e o f d 'A r c y , v e r y c lo s e to one o f th e N e a n d e r th a l c a v e s in F r a n c e , shows a p la t e a u f o r t e n t s w h ich were e r e c t e d in f r o n t o f th e c a v e . Each o f t h e s e p la t e a u x fo rm s a c i r c l e o f 3 - 4 m w id t h w it h a c e n t r a l dom ain made o u t o f p e t r i f i e d and a c c u m u la te d c l a y , w h ic h in t u r n i s s u rro u n d e d by a r in g o f s t o n e p l a t e s , fo r m in g a k in d o f s to n e p av em e n t. On th e o u t e r edge o f th e c i r c l e , h o le s can be fo u n d w h ic h were used as s c a f f o l d i n g b u i l t w it h mammoth t e e t h . The w h o le sp a c e has been c a r e f u l l y c le a n e d . O u t s id e t h i s a r e a , s e v e r a l la r g e heaps o f s c r a p and w a ste can be fo u n d , t o g e t h e r w it h s m a lle r and more s p e c i a l i s e d heaps d i s t r i b u t e d a lo n g th e s lo p e and c o n t a in in g s to n e d e b r i s , s m a lle r s t o n e s as w e ll as a s h e s . L e r o i- G o u r h a n c o n c lu d e s t h a t a r e m a r k a b le c o in c id e n c e o c c u r r e d in human e v o lu t i o n a t th e t im e : th e f i r s t p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n s in c a v e s c o in c id e d w it h th e a b i l i t y o f e a r l y men and women to draw b o u n d a r ie s betw een t h e i r s e t t le m e n t s and th e cha o s t h a t m arked t h e i r e n v ir o n m e n t.
I have c i t e d L e r o i- G o u r h a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n a t such le n g t h s in c e i t seems to me t o c o n t a in a v a l i d h y p o t h e s is f o r o u r e x e m p la ry them e: human o r c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n can a ls o be u n d e rs to o d in te rm s o f men and wom en's a b i l i t y t o cope w ith and c o n t a in th e w a ste th e y p ro d u c e in a c c o rd a n c e w it h t h e i r le v e l o f e c o n o m ic , t e c h n o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . C lo s e r t o s o c i o l o g i c a l home th e work o f N o r b e r t E l i a s on th e c i v i l i s i n g p r o c e s s m ig h t a ls o be c i t e d in o r d e r to d e r iv e a w o rk a b le h y p o t h e s is . I t c o n t a in s s u f f i c i e n t t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l g u id a n c e t o show how b o u n d a r ie s r e g u l a t in g s e n t im e n t s and b e h a v io u r a re s h i f t e d as p a r t o f th e c i v i l i s i n g p r o c e s s and why i t s h o u ld be e x p e c te d , f o r in s t a n c e , t h a t p e o p le 's s t a n d a r d s o f c l e a n l i n e s s ( " d i r t i s m a t te r o u t o f p la c e " , in M ary D o u g la s ' d e f i n i t i o n ) a r e g r a d u a ll y e x te n d e d beyond t h e i r e n t r a n c e d o o rs to w a rd s e n c o m p a s s in g a ls o o t h e r e n v ir o n m e n t s . The h y p o t h e s is , i f e x te n d e d to o u r p r e s e n t day s o c i e t i e s and t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s f o r p r o d u c in g w a s t e , w o uld im p ly t h a t c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n to d a y n e c e s s it a t e s th e f i n d i n g and im p o s it io n o f n o v e l ways o f d e a lin g w it h i t , c o n t a in in g i t in l i n e w it h o u r p r e s e n t day s o c i a l and t e c h n o lo g ic a l c a p a b i l i t i e s . U n d o u b t e d ly , o u r cave and th e s p a c e s in f r o n t o f i t , have w iden ed and assum ed g lo b a l d im e n s io n s , y e t - a p a r t fro m r a r e e x c e p t io n s , we do n o t a c t a c c o r d in g l y . H ig h ly t o x i c w a s te , to t a k e b u t one e x a m p le , has been s h ip p e d c l a n d e s t i n e l y fro m Europe to th e c o a s t o f N ig e r ia in a tte m p ts to dump i t t h e r e . The e n ra g e d N ig e r ia n s had t o s e t up n ig h t g u a rd s and vowed to k i l l any p e r p e t r a t o r g e t t in g n e a r them (how f a r p a s t n e o l i t h i c t im e s a re w e ? ).
T h e re can a ls o be no d o u b t t h a t o u r t e c h n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c means o f p r o d u c in g w a ste have become h ig h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a t r i b u t e t o th e k in d o f p r o d u c t s we can make and th e p r o d u c t io n p r o c e s s e s we u s e . B ut th e f a c t re m a in s t h a t th e y a re p ro d u ce d and in e v e r g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s , w ith e v e r g r e a t e r s p e e d . As I have p o in t e d o u t e ls e w h e r e , th e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f in n o v a t io n p r o c e s s e s e n t a i l s a ls o a s p e e d in g up o f p r o d u c t s , p r o c e s s e s and p e o p le , whose p e rfo rm a n c e and s k i l l s a re becom in g i n c r e a s i n g l y o b s o le t e . They a ls o r e p r e s e n t w a ste o f d i f f e r e n t s o r t s , p i l i n g up in o u r b a c k y a rd s o r s w e l lin g th e ra n k s o f th e unem plyed o r u n e m p lo y a b le . B ut b e f o r e t u r n in g to w a rd s th e q u e s t io n o f "w hat i s to be d o n e " , l e t us b r i e f l y c o n s id e r th e p o s s i b l e s t e p s o f a r e s e a r c h agenda th ro u g h w h ic h t h e i n i t i a l h y p o t h e s is m ig h t t a k e u s .
2.1 The h y p o t h e s is im p lie s t h a t t h e r e i s no u n ifo r m o r u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d d e f i n i t i o n o f w hat i s c o n s id e r e d to be w a s te . R a t h e r , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f w a ste i s bound to d i f f e r w i t h in d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s and be d e p e n d e n t on t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e l e v e l s o f c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n . We s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e s t a r t lo o k in g f o r d a ta and o b s e r v a t io n s on w h e th e r, in d e e d , th e d e f i n i t i o n o f what i s c o n s id e r e d t o be w a ste by o u r p r e s e n t - d a y s o c i e t i e s has changed i n , l e t us s a y , th e l a s t 20 y e a r s . To s i f t o u t d a ta t h a t c o u ld c o n f ir m o r d i s c l a i m such a h y p o t h e s is , we c o u ld lo o k to w a rd s th e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , b u t n o t so much in te rm s o f a c c u r a c y o f num bers, b u t in te rm s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , e co n o m ic o r s t a t i s t i c a l c a t e g o r ie s used t o keep t r a c k o f w a s te . We m ig h t even d is c o v e r g ro u p s o f p e o p le who s t a r t e d t o in v e n t new c a t e g o r ie s . We c o u ld a ls o s t a r t lo o k in g in t o n e w sp a p e rs o r s c r u t i n i s e o t h e r fo rm s o f p u b lic d is c o u r s e , to see when and how o f t e n th e term '"w aste" o r i t s h o m o lo g ie s t u r n up ( d i c t i o n a r i e s a re a ls o a good s o u r c e f o r t h e s e k in d s o f q u e s t io n s ) . We c o u ld t u r n to f ir m s and f i n d o u t more d i r e c t l y w h e th e r th e y b e lie v e t h a t th e y a re p ro d u c in g more w a ste now th a n b e f o r e , and i f s o , f i n d o u t w hat th e y c o n s id e r e d t o be w a ste b e f o r e and now e t c .
2 .2 In c a s e we f i n d a c o n f ir m a t io n , t e n t a t i v e as i t may be, t h a t t h e r e has in d e e d been a cha ng e in d e f i n i t i o n o f w hat is c o n s id e r e d t o be w a ste by d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s in s o c ie t y as w e ll as by i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , f ir m s and even s c i e n t i s t s , we c o u ld th e n t u r n t o s te p n o . 2 , t r y i n g t o f in d some o f th e p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s fro m w h ic h su ch ch a n g e s in c u l t u r a l , e c o n o m ic and s c i e n t i f i c d e f i n i t i o n s ( n o t to sp e a k o f th e p o l i t i c a l ones w h ich a re m ost e a s y t o a s c e r t a i n ) c o u ld come fr o m . They a re bound t o be m u l t i p l e : ch a n g e s in th e g e n e r a l a w a re n e ss o f p o s s i b l e d e t r im e n t a l e f f e c t s on t h e e n v ir o n m e n t s p re a d w it h th e e n v ir o n m e n t a l movement and h a v in g c a u g h t th e im a g in a t io n , good w i l l , and even a c t io n o f i n d i v i d u a l s and v o lu n t a r y g ro u p s a ls o a l t e r e d p u b l i c o p in io n and a w a re n e s s . B ut a ls o le s s v o l u n t a r i s t i c p r o c e s s e s , l i k e a g e n e r a l r i s e in th e s t a n d a r d o f c l e a n l i n e s s m ig h t c o r r e l a t e w it h r i s i n g s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g and e co n o m ic w e ll- b e in g and a re bound to become m a n if e s t f i r s t in th e p r iv a t e s p h e re o f th e ( b e t t e r - o f f ) h o u s e h o ld s , g r a d u a ll y t r i c k l i n g down t o h o u s e h o ld s n o t so w e ll o f f , b u t r e a c h in g them n e v e r t h e le s s . S t a t i s t i c s ab o un d. T h e re is no la c k , f o r in s t a n c e , o f c r o s s n a t io n a l c o m p a r is o n s in th e use o f so a p , t h e fr e q u e n c y o f
c h a n g in g u n d e rw e a r, o r o f c h a n g in g p a t t e r n s in h o u s e h o ld d u t ie s no lo n g e r p e rfo rm e d by women o n ly . B ut t h i s c a n n o t be a l l . O th e r p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s f o r ch a n g e s in s t a n d a r d s and e v e n t u a lly b e h a v io u r m ig h t have t o do w it h th e way th e m edia p o r t r a y d e t e r i o r a t i o n s o f th e e n v ir o n m e n t : d r a m a t ic s t o r i e s and p ic t u r e s ra n g e fro m dead b ir d s and v a n is h in g s p e c ie s to t h o s e o f th e s e a ls p r e s e n t ly d y in g on t h e E u ro pea n s h o r e s o f th e A t l a n t i c , and w h ich a re rem oved e a r l y in t h e m o rn in g so as n o t t o f r i g h t e n th e t o u r i s t s aw ay. R e g a r d le s s o f th e d e g re e o f a c c u r a c y o f m edia p o r t r a y a l , we become aw are t h a t c l e a n l i n e s s i s n o t o n ly so m e th in g we p r a c t i c e a t home o r on o u r own b o d ie s . I t s h o u ld p r e v a i l - and t h i s i s a n o r m a tiv e demand t h a t em erges and s p re a d s - a ls o in o u r s u r r o u n d in g s : in th e a i r we b r e a t h e in th e c e n t r e
B e r l i n j u s t as much as in th e sea w a te r we w ish d u r in g summer v a c a t io n s ; in t h e f i s h we e a t as e n io y in g more i n t a n g i b l e g oo ds l i k e lo o k in g a t r e m in d in g us o f c h ild h o o d . W ith t h e s e a m e n it ie s
o f P a r is o r t o b a th e in
much as in a b u t t e r f l y a p p a re n t ly e n d a n g e re d , th e s o u r c e o f a l l e v i l i s e a s i l y fo u n d by p u b lic r e a s o n in g : e co n o m ic i n t e r e s t s , and e s p e c i a l l y m u l t i - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t io n s w h ic h , i t i s b e l ie v e d , more e a s i l y can e sca p e n a t io n a l r e g u l a t io n s and s a n c t io n s , a re soon i d e n t i f i e d as th e m ain s o u r c e o f p o l l u t i o n . B u t w hat has changed t h e r e ? Have t h e i r p r o d u c t io n p r o c e s s e s d e t e r io r a t e d so t h a t more p o l l u t a n t s a re b e in g p ro d u c e d now, i s i t th e s y n t h e t ic e f f e c t s t h a t now com bine and p ro d u c e u n w a rra n te d e f f e c t s o r has i t more t o do w ith th e r i s e o f o u r new s t a n d a r d s and h e ig h te n e d l e v e l s o f a w a re n e s s ? F o r
m ust le a v e t h i s as an open and t u r n t o th e
q u e s t io n , to be n e x t s te p on o u r t h e tim e b e in g , we
i n v e s t ig a t e d e m p i r i c a l l y im a g in a r y ag e n d a .
2 .3 Now i t i s tim e to t u r n to w a rd s a s c e r t a i n i n g some h a rd f a c t s . We have had enough o f c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s and o f i d e n t i f y i n g h y p o t h e t ic a l c a u s e s f o r p o s s i b l e c h a n g e s in s t a n d a r d s and b e h a v io u r . Now we w ant t o know how p e o p le r e a l l y a c t . How much w a ste (h o w ev e r d e f in e d ) i s a c t u a l l y b e in g p ro d u c e d and o f what k in d ? Two i n i t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s im pose t h e m s e lv e s : t h e r e i s w aste c o n n e c te d e s s e n t i a l l y t o p r o d u c t io n p r o c e s s e s and w a ste c o n n e c te d t o c o n s u m p tio n ( w h ic h , o f c o u r s e , has a ls o t o be p re p a re d by p r o d u c t io n ) . How much, o f what k in d , w here? What ch a n g e s in tim e ? Where e x a c t l y in th e p r o d u c t io n p r o c e s s (and p r o d u c t io n o f what g o o d s , m a t e r ia l o r e n e r g y ) is w hat k in d o f w a ste p ro d u c e d ? What i s c o n t r o l l e d ( o r even f o r b id d e n ) a lr e a d y now? How a re such r e g u l a t i o n s e n f o r c e d , by whom? What i s th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f law s and r e g u l a t io n s as com pared to m a rk e t in c e n t iv e s and o t h e r k in d s o f e co n o m ic o r p o l i t i c a l p e r s u a s io n ? What i s th e r o l e p la y e d by n a t io n a l b o r d e r s ?
The l i s t o f "h a rd f a c t " q u e s t io n s can e a s i l y be p r o lo n g e d . Some a n sw e rs a re a v a i l a b l e , o t h e r s need to be c o l l e c t e d , s t i l l o t h e r s a re more t r i c k y th a n we may now b e l i e v e . T h is i s th e c o r e t a s k o f e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h and enough c o u ra g e o u s w o rk e rs in th e f i e l d (o r r a t h e r b e h in d t h e i r d a ta t e r m in a ls ) can be r e c r u i t e d t o h e lp us a lo n g in t h i s f a c t - g a t h e r i n g p h a s e . What n e x t ?
2 .4 Now we e n t e r more s p e c i a l i s e d g ro u n d . We need th e g u id a n c e o f
e x p e r t s in t e c h n o lo g ie s , f o r we a re in t e r e s t e d in f i n d i n g o u t w hat n o v e l ways t h e r e a r e , o r e x i s t in t h e o r y , b u t n o t in p r a c t i c e , f o r t r a n s f o r m in g unw anted w a s te . The id e a b e h in d t h i s p a r t o f th e im a g in a r y r e s e a r c h agenda has to do w it h t h e m agic w o rd , " r e c y c l i n g ' 1, b ut we a re w i l l i n g to engage in s e r i o u s and o p e n -m in d e d d is c u s s io n s w it h th e e x p e r t s . What k in d o f w a ste can be r e c y c le d ? What k in d o f w a ste can be c o n t a in e d and t r a n s fo r m e d a lr e a d y d u r in g p r o d u c t io n ? What i s to be done w it h th e o t h e r k in d s ? Dump i t ? Where? How? Is more in n o v a t io n needed in t h i s a r e a , more e co n o m ic i n c e n t i v e s , p e rh a p s even more s t a t e a c t io n ? How b e s t to in n o v a t e ? Or i s i t b e t t e r l e f t to p r iv a t e in d u s t r y , once th e t e c h n o lo g y p ro m is e s m a rk e t s h a r e s ? B ut more i s needed th a n in v e n t io n s and in n o v a t io n s h e re and t h e r e . A w h o le i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a t e c h n o - s y s te m has to em erge, p e rh a p s c o m p a ra b le t o t h e r a i l r o a d o r e l e c t r i c i t y s y s te m . F o r somehow, w a ste has to be t r a n s f o r m e d . I t c a n n o t j u s t be l e f t , to r o t away, b e c a u s e th e n a g g in g s u s p ic io n re m a in s t h a t i t w o n 't , r e g a r d le s s o f w here i t i s b e in g dumped. We sc a n once more th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , th e e co n o m ic i n c e n t iv e s f o r im p le m e n tin g them ; we lo o k f o r m o d e ls t h a t " w o r k " , f o r s u c c e s s u l c a s e s and f o r f a i l u r e s . We s t a r t c o m p a rin g to make s e n s e o u t o f an a re a w h ich i s u n d e rg o in g r a p id t e c h n o l o g i c a l and e co n o m ic c h a n g e . T h e re a re h id d e n l e v e l s o f d e p th o f a n a l y s i s h e r e . We can c o n t e n t o u r s e lv e s , once we know th e t e c h n o lo g ic a l a n s w e rs . B u t t h e n , t h e r e i s t h e q u e s t io n o f s o c i a l and e co n o m ic o r g a n i s a t i o n . We r e t u r n t o th e f ir m s and sp e a k n o t o n ly w it h th e m a n a g e rs, b u t w it h e x p e r t s on o r g a n i s a t i o n . S t i l l f u r t h e r b elo w (and o u r r e s e a r c h w ork may n e v e r g e t t h e r e ) i s th e q u e s t io n o f w a ste t r a n s f o r m a t io n as a c u l t u r a l , i . e . system c h a lle n g e . How to do i t , on a la r g e s c a le , how t o im p le m e n t i t , how to cha n g e th e w o r ld ? Enough o f d e e p - le v e l d a y d re a m s. We have a n o t h e r v i t a l p o in t on th e a g en da .
2 .5 What i s t o be done? T h is q u e s t io n i s a r e c u r r e n t one in th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . E v e ry s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t b o th w elcom es i t and d re a d s i t a t th e same t im e . F i n a l l y , we can p ro v e o u r u s e f u l l n e s s , o u r a d v ic e i s s o l i c i t e d and a t le a s t f o r a b r i e f p e r io d , we e n jo y th e s e n s a t io n o f b e in g l i s t e n e d to by t h o s e who s u p p o s e d ly a re in a p o s i t i o n t o change t h i n g s , a lth o u g h we know a ls o a b o u t t h e i r p o w e r le s s n e s s . A t th e same tim e we d re a d i t , b e c a u s e e x p e r ie n c e has t a u g h t us t h a t t h e r e a r e no s im p le r e c i p e s , t h a t s o c i e t i e s d i f f e r a l s o in te rm s o f s o l u t i o n s t h a t a re s u it e d t o t h e i r c o n s t r a i n t s and c ir c u m s t a n c e s , c o n f l i c t - r id d e n and b a n a l in te rm s o f p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o u t in e as t h e y a r e . Y e s , t h e r e a r e s t a t e , m u n ic ip a l and l o c a l b u r e a u c r a c ie s t h a t m ig h t have a s a y ; y e s t h e r e a re f ir m s t h a t m ig h t cha ng e t h e i r a c t io n s , b u t th e y s t i l l a re to c o m p e te , f o r th e sa k e o f n a t io n a l i n t e r e s t s , on th e w o rld m a r k e t. Y e s , t h e r e a re i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g re e m e n ts , s lo w t o re a c h and f a r to o b e n ig n in t h e i r s a n c t io n in g pow er, b u t w hat e ls e i s t h e r e to o f f e r , once th e e f f e c t s o f w a ste p r o d u c t io n and p o s s i b l e c o n ta in m e n t c r o s s - as i s n o r m a lly th e c a se - n a t io n a l b o u n d a r ie s . As t r a i n e d s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s (and o u r b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s in th e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s em ploy s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s when d e a lin g w ith p o lic y - m a k e r s ) we t r y t o have i t b o th w ays: d e p e n d in g on th e o c c a s io n , we p u t on th e
a s s e r t i v e h a t o f s o c i e t a l r e le v a n c e and u t i l i t y o f o u r a d v ic e , c o m m o n -s e n s ica 1 as i t may be; i t w i l l be g a r n is h e d t o a p p e a r more l e g i t i m a t e . B ut th e n we a ls o have t o a d m it t h a t t h e r e a re lo n g term s o c i e t a l p r o c e s s e s whose outcom e i s d ir e c t e d b u t u n p la n n e d and w h ic h do n o t c o in c i d e w ith w hat th e a c t o r s in v o lv e d in th e s e p r o c e s s e s e i t h e r w anted o r f e a r e d - in b r i e f , t h a t t h e r e a re u n in te n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f human a c t io n and t h a t in t h e s e s o c i e t a l p r o c e s s e s m echanism us w ork t h e i r way, more f i n e l y tu n e d th a n c o u ld be in v e n t e d by any human a g e n t. T h is p a r t o f o u r i n s i g h t s we s h a l l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o f f e r to th o s e p o lic y - m a r k e r s who want g u i d e l i n e s f o r a c t i o n , b u t we know them , n e v e r t h e le s s .
I f we a re h o n e s t , we a ls o have t o a d m it a re a s o f ig n o r a n c e . We know l i t t l e , f o r in s t a n c e , as t o how th e l o c a l and g lo b a l a re c o n n e c te d in te rm s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n , and how i n d i v i d u a l a c t io n s
"on t h e g ro u n d " may in f lu e n c e b r o a d , sw e e p in g ch a n g e s a t th e m a c r o - le v e l. We have h i n t s , b u t n o t much in te rm s o f c o n f ir m a t io n , as t o how id e a s , w is h e s , a s p i r a t i o n s and b e l i e f s have in t h e r heads and h e a r t s a re c o n n e c te d to u n d e r t a k e , l e t a lo n e th e l o g i c o f i n s t i t u t i o n s . B ut th e e n d , th e way s c ie n c e p r o c e e d s , in d c lu d in g th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . By m a rk in g a r e a s o f ig n o r a n c e , we can p e rh a p s a ls o become more d e l i b e r a t e l y aw are o f w hat we o u g h t to know.
t h a t p e o p le a c t io n s t h e y t h i s i s , in
A t th e end o f t h i s im a g in a r y jo u r n e y t h r o u g h an im a g in a r y r e s e a r c h ag e n d a , we have o n ly begun t o l i f t th e v e i l on what i s u s u a l l y o b s c u r e d by f o c u s s in g s o l e l y upon in n o v a t io n . W aste, e s p e c i a l l y in i t s more d a n g e ro u s fo r m s , i s b u t one e xam p le - th e w a ste o f human s k i l l s and k n o w le d g e , in th e fo rm o f unem ploym ent and o t h e r s o c i a l i l l s , i s a n o t h e r . How do - and how have s o c i e t i e s coped w it h such p ro b le m s b e f o r e (1 3 ) ? What s o l u t i o n s and s t r a t e g i e s have been fo u n d ? U n d o u b te d ly , w it h th e u n p re c e d e n te d r a t e o f a c c e l e r a t i o n in in n o v a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s and t e c h n o lo g ic a l cha ng e w h ic h a re th e h a llm a r k o f a s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o lo g ic a l c i v i l i z a t i o n , th e p ro b le m s c r e a t e d t h e r e b y have a ls o re a c h e d a d i f f e r e n t s c a le and demand new s o l u t i o n s . In what d i r e c t i o n a re we t o t u r n , i f a n sw e rs a re t o be fo u n d - so o n ?
I I I . The s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f in n o v a t io n
The need t o b a la n c e th e p r o c e s s e s o f in n o v a t io n and o f o b s o le s c e n c e , o f f i n d i n g p r a c t i c a l ways o f m oving fo r w a r d on th e e v o lu t i o n a r y p a th by in c o r p o r a t in g w hat i s l e f t b e h in d and has been e c o n o m ic a lly and c u l t u r a l l y d e f in e d as " w a s t e " , and o f b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d in g t h i s p r o c e s s , has b o th an e m in e n t ly p o l i c y - o r ie n t e d s id e t o i t and a c h a lle n g i n g t h e o r e t i c a l o n e . "W aste"
has been used h e re as an e n c o m p a ss in g te r m , r e f e r r i n g t o m a t e r ia l p r o d u c t s as w e ll as t o e n e r g y , t o human k n o w le d g e and s k i l l s as w e ll as to " g a i n i n g " " and to " l o s i n g " r e g io n s o r s o c i a l g r o u p s . L e a v in g a s id e th e p r a c t i c a l , p o l i c y - o r i e n t e d p ro b le m s f o r th e tim e b e in g , I s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e , a lt h o u g h o n ly in a v e r y s k e t c h y fo rm , on f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l is s u e s in t h i s l a s t s e c t i o n .
T h ro u g h o u t th e h i s t o r y o f h u m a n k in d , th e a p p e a ra n c e o f n o v e l
fo rm s o f l i f e and t h e i r p r o d u c t iv e u n d e r p in n in g has been a c c o m p a n ie d by the lo s s o f a n o th e r s o r t . The em ergence o f new s p e c ie s meant t h a t o t h e r s p e c ie s v a n is h e d ; n o v e l cu sto m s s u p e rs e d e d o ld e r o n e s . Y e t such p r o c e s s e s d i s p l a y b o th some a s t o n i s h in g c o n s t a n t s and g r e a t v a r i e t y , d e p e n d in g on th e
" p o p u la t io n " ( t h e s e t o f " e m e rg in g " o r " v a n is h in g " o b j e c t s , t r a i t s , e t c . ) w h ic h i s b e in g lo o k e d a t . T h e re has been a tre m e n d o u s in c r e a s e in w o r ld p o p u la t io n o v e r t h e l a s t 200 y e a r s w h ic h t h e e a r t h c o u ld s u s t a in w h ich may l e v e l o f f a t i t s p r e s e n t r a t e o f r e p r o d u c t io n , h o w e v e r. I n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , have d r a m a t i c a l l y in c r e a s e d in d e n s i t y , w h ile s t i l l e x h i b i t i n g i n t e r e s t i n g r a t e s o f g ro w th e t c . O th e r e xa m p le s c o u ld be p r o v id e d w h ich s e e m in g ly d e m o n s tra te t h e o p p o s it e . A c l o s e r lo o k r e v e a ls , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e phenomenon o f th e
" v a n is h in g s p e c ie s " as I c a l l i t , i . e . th e h e ig h t e n e d v i s i b i l i t y o f t h i n g s , o r t r a i t s , i n s t i t u t i o n s o r s e n t im e n t s , in f o r m a t io n and k n o w le d g e d is a p p e a r in g , i s as much a phenomenon o f s o c i a l p e r c e p t io n as o f r e a l o c c u r r e n c e . Take th e c a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e , f o r in s t a n c e , w h ic h has cha ng ed fro m a more o r le s s v e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e p r o d u c t io n p r o c e s s e s in th e 19th c e n t u r y t o i t s p r e s e n t - d a y h o r i z o n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n . W h ile e n e rg y p r o d u c t io n , c ro p s e e d s and p r o d u c t io n , t r a n s p o r t o r m a r k e t in g were a l l p e rfo rm e d d i r e c t l y on th e fa rm , an e x t e n s iv e , h o r i z o n t a l l y sp re a d em ploym ent s t r u c t u r e p r e v a i l s t o d a y . As a r e s u l t , th e number o f p e o p le em plo yed in a g r i c u l t u r e r e la t e d a c t i v i t i e s i s la r g e r th a n s u g g e s te d by c o n v e n t io n a l s t a t i s t i c s , a lt h o u g h t h e s e p e o p le a re em plo yed in d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s , p ro d u c in g f e r t i l i z e r s , c ro p se e d s t r a c t o r s , s e l l i n g fo o d in a g r o c e r y s t o r e e t c . ( 1 6 ) . T a sk s l i k e t h e s e w ere p e rfo rm e d by fa r m e r s d i r e c t l y o v e r 100 y e a r s ago.
L ik e w is e , a s e e m in g ly s im p le q u e s t io n l i k e "how many s p e c ie s a re t h e r e on e a r t h " has y ie ld e d fe w , i f a n y , r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s , b u t many open q u e s t io n s f o r a r e s e a r c h agenda ( 1 7 ) . T h is i s p a r t l y , b u t o n ly p a r t l y , a m a t te r o f taxonom y and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . To t a k e y e t a n o th e r - c l a s s i c a l - e x a m p le , f o r w h ic h d a ta and e s t im a t e s have been p r o v id e d , b u t w h ich opens up a t l e a s t as many new q u e s t io n s ; what i s th e lo s s o f in f o r m a t io n w h ic h a r i s e s fro m new in f o r m a t io n b e in g p ro d u c e d ( 1 8 ) ? T h is p o in t s n o t o n ly t o such phenomena as " f o r g e t t i n g " , " c o l l e c t i v e memory" o r " l o s s o f c o l l e c t i v e memory" and t h e i r s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s . I t c o n t a in s a ls o a p o t e n t i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s ia 1 q u e s t io n d e a lin g w it h ju d g e m e n ts and v a lu e s r e g a r d in g w hat i t i s w h ich is w o rth b e in g p r e s e r v e d and how.
A t a l l tim e s some c o n s e r v a t io n t e c h n iq u e s p re s u m a b ly e x is t e d n e x t t o " s u r v i v a l " b e in g l e f t t o n a t u r e 's o r s o c i e t y ' s own and u n c o n t r o la b le s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . The e la b o r a t e tomb f u r n i s h i n g s and g ra v e i n s t a l l a t i o n s p r o v id e d one e s s e n t i a l c o n s e r v a t io n t e c h n iq u e in many e a r ly c u l t u r e s , even i f th e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e was d i f f e r e n t l y m o t iv a t e d . Y e t , s t r a t e g i e s o f c o n s c io u s p r e s e r v a t io n , a re o f r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n , m o re o v e r, th e y a re n o t e q u a lly h ig h l y v a lu e d in a l l c u l t u r e s . They p re s u p p o s e , among o t h e r , a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f w e a lth as w e ll as c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s th e p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e . In th e 1 9 th c e n t u r y , p e a s a n t museums were e s t a b lis h e d in many E u ro p e a n c o u n t r ie s , in an e f f o r t to p r e s e r v e a t le a s t in a m useal fo rm a l i f e s t y l e
w h ic h was q u i c k l y d is a p p e a r in g u n d e r th e im p a c t o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The c u l t u r a l r e d e f i n i t i o n o f o b j e c t s o f fo rm e r d a i l y use t o t u r n in g them in t o h ig h l y p r iz e d a n t iq u e s , is th e r e v e r s e s id e o f d e c la r in g them to be r u b b is h ( 1 9 ) . T h e re a re more ways o f d e a lin g w it h th e m a t e r ia l and c o g n i t iv e p a s t , h o w e v e r, th a n t h e s e two e x tre m e s i n d i c a t e . We c o n t in u e to make use o f th e p a s t , even in th e m id s t o f th e f l u r r y s u r r o u n d in g in n o v a t iv e a c t v i t i e s . W h ile some p a r t s o f th e p a s t - r i g h t l y o r w r o n g ly - a re f o r g o t t e n , o t h e r s c o n t in u e to e x e r t a s t r o n g , even lo n g - t e r m e f f e c t . L ik e in an i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e , w here th e p a s t can p o w e r f u lly in f lu e n c e th e p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o n e 's u n c o n s c io u s , th e p a s t i s a ls o p r e s e n t in th e l i f e o f a s o c ie t y and i t s d e a lin g w it h th e n a t u r a l e n v ir o n m e n t . The p a s t is p r e s e n t , even i f s u p e r c e d e d , in in n o v a t o r y and c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , when " o ld " and
"new" e le m e n ts a re com bined in n o v e l w a ys. Even th e h i s t o r y o f s c ie n c e and o f s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r ie s t e a c h e s us t h a t i t i s one t h in g t o come v e r y c lo s e to g r a s p in g a t h e o r y and y e t a n o th e r t o u n d e r s t a n d p r e c i s e l y i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Many im p o r t a n t id e a s have been o b s e rv e d o r s a id by som eone, who d id n o t
" d is c o v e r " them . As P a s t e u r p u t i t , " l e h a s a rd ne f a v o r i s e que le s e s p r i t s p r e p a r e d " .
I n n o v a t io n and o b s o le s c e n c e a re t h e r e f o r e n o t o n ly t h e two s id e s o f one c o in , bound to each o t h e r th ro u g h t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s a lo n g th e e v o lu t i o n a r y p a th , b u t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s much more c o m p le x . U n d o u b te d ly , a t t h i s s t a g e o f o u r s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o lo g ic a l c i v i l i z a t i o n , we have o p te d f o r c o n t in u in g in n o v a t io n , b u t we a re a ls o becom ing much more aware o f th e w a ste w h ic h i s b e in g p ro d u ce d a t t h e same t im e . I f we a re t o e x t r a p o la t e fro m th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , i t w ould s im p ly mean t h a t th e more and th e f a s t e r t e c h n o l o g i c a l in n o v a t io n c o n t in u e s , th e more w a ste w ould be p ro d u c e d . Y e t, t h e r e is a ls o t h e hope t h a t t h e e v o lu t i o n a r y p r o c e s s i t s e l f w i l l f a v o u r m a jo r a d v a n c e s , t h a t
in n o v a t io n w i l l o u t w it th e unw anted c o n s e q u e n c e s o f in n o v a t io n . I t i s in t h e c o n t e x t o f su ch a d e b a te t h a t th e c o n c e p t o f
" s u s t a i n a b i l i t y " w h ich has f i r s t been in t r o d u c e d in c o n n e c t io n w it h how t o d e a l w it h th e b io s p h e r e , a c q u ir e s a d d i t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . S u s t a i n a b i l i t y , as H. B ro o k s has re m in d e d us r e c e n t l y , i s an e s s e n c e an a n t h r o p o c e n t r ic phenomenon ( 2 0 ) . I t i s th e id e a t h a t th e p r o t e c t io n o f n a t u r e i s o n ly j u s t i f i e d to th e e x t e n t t h a t i t m a in t a in s r e s o u r c e s t h a t w i l l b e n e f it h um ankind a t some tim e in th e f u t u r e . B u t s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i s a l s o an e v o lu t i o n a r y c o n c e p t . I t does n o t im p ly a s i n g l e , v i a b l e p a th . One c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e e v o lu t i o n a r y phenomenon i s t h a t any p o l i c y w h ic h i s s u s t a in a b le o v e r a s h o r t span o f t im e , may become u n s u s t a in a b le u n le s s g r a d u a ll y m o d if ie d t o ta k e in t o a c c o u n t slo w c u m u la t iv e e f f e c t s . Thus an im p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f m a in t a in in g s u s t a i n a b i l i t y in th e lo n g term may be c o n t in u o u s m o n it o r in g o f th e s lo w v a r i a b l e s . H e t e r o g e n e it y , e s p e c i a l l y s p a t i a l h e t e r o g e n e it y , may be a n o th e r fo rm o f in c r e a s in g s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . As an e v o lu t i o n a r y c o n c e p t , i t a ls o l i n k s p a s t w it h p r e s e n t and p r e s e n t w it h f u t u r e .
I n n o v a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s make use in so m etim es u n e x p e c te d and
n o v e l way o f what has a lr e a d y been d is c a r d e d , b u t n o t f a l l e n in t o t o t a l o b l i v i o n o r h a v in g been d e c la r e d t o be c o m p le t e ly o b s o le t e . The m a t e r ia l and c u l t u r a l p a s t can in i t s e l f become th e s o u r c e o f re n e w a l and i s b e in g renew ed in th e p r o c e s s . By p u t t in g " o ld "
museum p ie c e s on d i s p l a y , t h e y a c q u ir e new s i g n i f i c a n c e , s u p p o s e d ly r e le v a n t f o r th e p r e s e n t v ie w e r s . L ik e w is e , th e "new m a t e r ia ls " w h ic h t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n i s a t p r e s e n t d e v e lo p in g w it h th e h e lp o f i t s s c ie n c e and t e c h n o lo g y , w i l l e s s e n t i a l l y be s y n t h e s iz e d o u t o f cheap and r e a s o n a b ly a b u n d a n t raw m a t e r ia l w h ic h a re p r o c e s s e d on a s u b m ic r o s c o p ic o r m o le c u la r le v e l w it h th e h e lp o f m a t e r ia l e n g in e e r in g and p h y s ic s ( 2 1 ) . R e - c y c lin g is based on t h e id e a o f t r a n s f o r m in g in such a way t h a t m a t e r ia l o r e n e rg y can be used a l l o v e r a g a in , w h ile m in im iz in g th o s e p a r t s o f w a ste w h ic h a re u n w a n te d , b e c a u se d i f f i c u l t t o d is p o s e o f o r u n e c o n o m ic a l. J u s t as c u l t u r a l in n o v a t io n i s in t e n s e ly based on th e re n e w a l o f a lr e a d y known fo rm s and c o n t e n t s , w it h n o v e l p e r s p e c t i v e s o r p r o c e s s in g b e in g , a d d e d , so t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a t io n s w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y be b ased on r e s o u r c e s w h ic h a re re n e w a b le o r can be made to do s o . T h is a p p lie s even more so to e n e r g y .
In t h e lo n g r u n , s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f t h e b io s p h e r e and o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n may t h e r e f o r e depend on how t o make use o f re n e w a b le r e s o u r c e s . The p r e s e n t la u d a b le f o c u s on in n o v a t io n , e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r an e v o l u t i o n a r y , lo n g - t e r m p e r s p e c t iv e needs t o be com plem en ted and e x te n d e d t o in c lu d e o t h e r p r o c e s s e s and c o n c e p t s . T u r n in g o u r a t t e n t io n to w a rd s th e p r o b le m a t ic s id e o f in n o v a t io n - th e g e n e r a t io n o f w a ste and o b s o le s c e n c e c r e a t e d in i t s w a ke, w h e th e r i t t a k e s t h e fo rm o f u n e m p lo y m en t, w a ste o f human r e s o u r c e s o r how t o d is p o s e o f m a t e r ia l w a s te , - i s im p o r t a n t , b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t . What i s a t s t a k e is n o t h in g more and n o t h in g le s s th a n t o deepen o u r u n d e r s t a n d in g a b o u t th e c o n d i t io n s u n d e r w h ic h s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f s o c i a l and e co n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n ts o c c u r s , in c l u d in g th e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f th e in n o v a t o r y t r a j e c t o r i e s upon w h ich we have la u n c h e d o u r s e l v e s .
In t h e c o u r s e o f d o in g s o , we w i l l have to le a r n more a b o u t th e d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f change o f v a r i a b l e s t h a t move f a s t and th o s e t h a t move s lo w ly ; a b o u t th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f s h o r t - t e r m , medium- term and lo n g - t e r m e f f e c t s in th e p o l i c y re a lm as w e ll as in th e n a t u r a l and s o c i a l w o r ld ; and a b o u t th e p r e c is e m echanism s o f how th e s o c i e t a l u n c o n s c io u s w o rks in an e v o lu t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t iv e : how we make us o f th e m a t e r ia l and c o g n i t iv e - s y m b o l ic p a s t as a re n e w a b le r e s o u r c e in in n o v a t in g th e p r e s e n t .
