www.ssoar.info Women's Employment and Educational Attainment : A Cross-National Comparison

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Women's Employment and Educational Attainment : A Cross-National Comparison

Nishimura, Junko

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Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation:

Nishimura, J. (2016). Women's Employment and Educational Attainment : A Cross-National Comparison. Meisei University research bulletin of sociology, 36, 25-39. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-84572-1

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《論 文》

Women s Employment and Educational Attainment

：ACross−National Comp arison Junko Nishimura

Abstract

 This study explores the variations in the

relationship between women s employment

and educational attainment， as well as ln

women

s employment status itself， in 12 industrial societies， referring to welfare regime typology． The International Social

Survey Programme（ISSP）2012 survey on

Family and Cllanging Gender Roles IV is used for cross−national analysis． The results suggest that women s employment rate can be explained by the type of welfare 1・egime to a certain extent． However， once we break down the employment rate into full・time and part−time components， a great varlatlon emerges within welfare regime． Witll regard

to the relationship bet ・een women s educational attainment and employment，

welfare regime only partly explains the

variation among the 12 countries．

Furthermore， the lselationship bet ・een wome1ゴs full−time and part−time employment and their educational attainment varies within eacll type of welfare regime．

lntroduction

  In recent years， industrial societies llave seen an increase in women s participation in

both the labour force and higher education． In most Western countries， there is also a

relationship between employment and

educational attainment， in that better−

educated women are less likely to leave paid

・ork or if they do leave， to return to  ・ork more quickly （Bre、、・ster＆Rindfuss，2000）．

However， tllis relationsllip seems weaker in East Asian societies such as Japan and South Korea（Brinton＆Lee，2001）；most notably， in Japan， women s educational attainment does not enhance tlleir likelillood of employment around tlle time of their first cllild s birth or of re−entering the labour f（）rce after childbirth

（Nishimura， in press）．

  This study explores tlle variations in the

relationship between women s employment

and educational attainment， as well as in

women

s employment status itself， in 12 industrial societies， taking into account the societal contexts which may affect women s labour market decisions and mediate the effect of educational attainment on their employment． To differentiate societal contexts，

this study applies 、velfare regime t｝・pology，

wllich has oflen been used to study women s

employmen1、（Gustafsson，1994）． Since

countries witllin a given welfare regime show considerable variation in political and social

一

features （Van Dijk，2001）， and since there is also considerable variation in employment−

related policies concerning women within each welfare regime（Gornick， Meyers，＆

Ross，1997）， this study seeks to explain which aspects of women s employment decisions are or are not explained by welfare regime typology．

Women s Employment and lnstitutional

       Contexts

Welfare Regime Typology

  This study applies a typology of welfare regimes proposed by Esping−Andersen（1990，

1999）． Regime refers to the ways in which welfare production is allocated between state，

market， and households （Esping−Andersen，

1999，p．73）． Esping−Andersen s typology differentiates between three models of welfare

regimes：liberal， social−democratic and

conservative．

  The liberal welfare regime reflects a pOlitiCal COmmitment tO minimizing tlle State

（rather than protecting broadly against individual risk）and to promoting market

solutions． It is residual， in the sense that social

guarantees are typically restricted to bad risks （Esping−Andersen，1999， p．75）， and it adheres to a narrow conception Qf what risks should be considered society s responsibility．

Anglo−Saxon states， such as the United States，

Canada， Australia， Ireland， New Zealand and the UK， fall into this typology．

  The social−democratic welfare regime can be found in the Nordic countries of Denmark，

Finland， Norway and Sweden． The provision

of social welfare is based on universalism． In addition， rights are attached to individuals and based on citizenship， rather than on demonstrated need or employment status．

This regime is oriented towards de−

commodifying welfare and minimizing market dependency．

  The conservative welfare regime reflects the historical influence of monarchical statism，

traditional corporatism， or Catholic sociaI

teachings， and its essence is status

segmentation and familialism． Corporatist status divisions permeate social security systems． Compulsory social insurance is complemented by more or Iess ad hoc residual

schemes for strata witllout a normar

employment relationship． Most countries of continental Europe， such as Austria， Belgium，

France， Germany， Italy， the Netherlands and SPain， as well as Japan are included in this regime． Altllough Japan is regarded as

manifesting a mixture of liberal and

conservatlve traltS， ItS corpOratlst soclaI lnsurance system and accentuated familialism

cause Japan to be categorized with

COnServatlve reglmeS．

De−familialisation

  Esping−Andersen（1999）furthermore

indicates that welfare states vary with regard to how they absorb the burdens of family care， a factor directly related to the present study s concern for understanding how a welfare regime affects women s employment．

Esping−Andersen distinguishes three fbrms of de−familialisation ：through the welfare state，

within households and through the market．

According to his analysis， countries witll a social−democratic welfare regime displayed higher levels of de・familiaUsation through the welfare state than otller countries． As for the extent of de・familialisation within households，

countries with a social−democratic welfare regime were located at the higher end， Japan and the southern European countries were located at the oPPosite end， and countries with liberal welfare regimes and of continental Europe were in between． Although insuMcient data are available to directly analyse de−

familialisation through the market， an

examination of assistance for families with children shows tllat the cost of childcare can be controlled tllrougll direct public provision

（in Scandinavia）， subsidy and public regulation （in France）， or an affordable market（in the United States）， but tllat in all other countr三es， the cost of child care accounted for a considerable proportion of family income．

  As the Scandinavian countries have higher levels of de−familialisation in all three fbrms，

women in these countries are more likely to be free from family care， and hence it can be predicted that more women will participate in the labour fOrce there than in other welfare regimes． Furthermore， Japan and the southern European countries exhibit lower levels of de−

familialisation， especially within households，

which places greater family care burdens on women；hence， 「omell ill tllese countries are assumed to be less likely to participate ill tlle labour force tllan those ill liberal and social−

democratic welfare regimes and of continental Europe． The labour fbrce participation rate of

women in liberal regimes and in conservative regimes of continental Europe is expected to

fall somewhere between that in the

Scandinavian countries and that in Japan and the southern European countries， since these countries level of de−familialisation is generally moderate．

  This set of assumptions implies that women s employment is explained by the type of welfare regime to some extent． However， it might not be fully explained by the variable of welfare regime， since the levels of de−

familialisation do not fully correspond with welfare regime types．

Relationship between Women s

Employment and Educational Attainment

  According to human capital theory， human capital refers to all knowledge and skills that increase an individuars productivity in the Iabour market （Becker，1975）， and it is accumulated througll investments such as schooling， training and health−enhancing activities． Education is a leading form of human capital investment． Women s higher educational attainment should enhance their utility in the labour market and increase their opPortunity cost of non−participation in the labour force；therefore， higher educational attainment is expected to facilitate women s employment． However， tlle effect of women s educational attainment on their employment n〕ay be mediated by the institutiollal contex七 i．e． the welfare regime．

  In countries 、vith a conservative 、velfare regime， includillg the continental and soutllern European countries as、K・ell as Japan， strong

一

familialism would inhibit women s employment．

Women in these nations are expected to engage in family care， regardless of their educational attainment；therefore， the effect of

educational attainment on employment is

somewhat obscured． In countries with a

social−democratic welfare regime， tlle

relationsllip bet ・een  ・omen s educationaI attainment and employment is also expected to be unclear， because tlle high level of de−

familialisation enables women to participate in the labour market regardless of their extent of educat▲on． On the other hand， in countries with a liberal welfare regime， the effect of

women s educational attainment on employment is assumed to be clear and

women with higher education are more likely to hold jobs than those with Iess education．

This is because in countries where sociaI

welfare is highly dependent on market

mechanisms， highly educated women can earn higher wages in the market， giving them greater ability to purchase child care services which would permit them to stay in the labour force．

  In sum， the effect of women s educational

attainment on their employment is

hypothesized to be more salient under liberal welfare regimes；the reiationship between

women s educational attainment and

employment is expected to be unclear under the other two welfare regimes， but for different reasons．

Women s Part−time Employment

  Part−time employment may serve as a way to ease work−family con且icts fbr、vomen． For

example， in Sweden the availability of part−

time work and reduced hours has increased since the l970s， contributing to a dramatic reduction in the number of mothers without employment． In Sweden， part−time work is not treated as marginal in character；specifically，

it is not restricted to loxK・−level， lo ・−paid jobs，

and part−time workers are entltled to full social benefits（Sundstr6m，1997）． However，

in some countries， being a part−time worker

has considerable disadvantageous

consequences． In Japan and the United States，

non−standard workers， including part−time workers， are less likely than full−time workers to qualify for benefit s such as enrolment in health insurance or a pension plan；they also receive lower wages and enjoy less job

security（Houseman＆Osawa，2003）． How

these variations in characte1°istics of part−time work affect women s employment and its relationship with educational attainment is another concern of this study．

Method

Data and Samples

  The International Social Survey Programme

（ISSP）2012 survey oパFamily and Changing Gender Roles IV （ISSP Research Group，

2014） is used here fbr cross−national analysis of women s employment and its relationship with educational attainment． The ISSP is a cross−national collaborative programme wllich

has been continuously conducting annual

surveys on diverse social science topics since 1985．Thirty−seven countries participated in the 2012 gender−role module． In each country，

anationally representative sample of the adult population was selected， and all respondents were asked to answer identical questionnaires．

The British English Basic Questionnaire was translated into each coulltl−Y s local language as equivaleIltly as possible． Tlle sampling Procedures and Inode of data collection also differed bet、veen countries．

  Of the 37 countries surveyed，12  ・ere selected for analysis in tllis study． Canada， the

UK and the United States were chosen as examples of liberal welfare regimes；Finland，

Norway and Sweden as social−democratic

welfare regimes；and Austria， France and Germany as conservative reglmes． In addition，

althougll Esping・Andersen s welfare regime typology included East Asian and southern

European countries ill the conservative

regime， llere tlley are tlseated as a fourth separate category， because tlley exhibit lower leveIs of de−familialisation ill such a ・ay as to

impose family care burdens directly on

women． From this group， Japan， South Korea and Spain were selected for analysis． The

analysis was restricted to women with

children．

Variables and Procedure

  This study uses two questlons to measure

women s employment． Respondents were

asked if Uley worked full−time， worked part−

tilne， stayed at home or worked at home

when a cllild was under 9． c h o ol age and after the youngest cllild started sclloo1．

  Women s level of educational attainment was assessed using country−specific answer categories；however， for all 12 countries

included in the present analysis， educational attainment was categorized as either higller education （universit＞・or college leveD and secondary education or less  （fOr details， see Appendix Table 1）．

  To examine the relationship between

women s employment and welfare regime， the distribution of womengs employment status at two life stages （when they have a child under school age and when their youngest child starts school） is presented fbr each country．

Then， the relationship bet ・een educational attainment and employment is examined by showing each country s distribution of women s employment status by educational level at these two time points．

Results

Women s Employment Status by Life

Stage

  Figure l shows the distr▲butlon of women s employment status by life stage for tlle 12 countries． With regard to similarities among all countries， we find that the percentage of women who worked as full−time employees was higher when their youngest child was at school than when they had a child under school age， whereas the percentage of women who stayed at home was lower．

  Women s employment behaviour shows

some differences ill terms of welfare regime．

In tlle social−democratic countries−Finland，

Norway and Sweden−the percentage of

women who stayed at home wllen their

youngest child was in school was considerably lower than in countries with other welfare

一

Figure 1・ Women s emplo．yment status by life stage

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      Canada， chHd under school age（n＝257）

       Canada， youngest child at scllool（n−234）

      UK， youngest chnd at school（n＝314）

       US， cllild under school age（n＝522）

      US， youngest child at schoo1（n＝480）

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      Finland， child under school age（n＝431）

       Finland， youngest child at sclloo1（n＝349）

SociaL        Norway， child under school age（n＝538）

democratic

      Norway， youngest child at school（n＝445）

      Sweden， child under school age（n＝411）

       Sweden， youngest child at schoo1（n＝360）

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      Austria， child under school age（n＝452）

       Austria， youngest cllild at schoo1（n＝452）

      France， child under scllool age（n＝1170）

Conservative

      France， youngest cllild at schoo1（n；1001）

       Ge㎜any， clllld under scllool age（n＝637）

       Ge㎜any， youngest child at sclloo1（n＝520）

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      Japan， child under school age（n＝327）

      Japan， youngest child at schoo1（n＝331）

East Asia

   ＆       South Korea， child under school age（n＝625）

      Spai11， child under school age（n；982）

      Spa三n， youngest child at schoo】（n＝942）

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ベ．1；ゴ訟ジ川46、4議：彦ζ鰭、 20．0 ^{33．71甲一}

SOURCE：ISSP，2012

［lFu11−time

        0％ 10％20％30％40％50％60％70％80％90％100％

Part−t▲me  「Stayed at home

regimes， at only 7．2％，52％and 5．8％in the three nations， respectively． In addition， in these tllree social−democratic countries， the percentage of women who stayed at home when their child was under school age was

IO、ver than that in Other COUntrieS．

  In contrast， in East Asian countries and

southern European countries where

familialism is dominant−spec▲fically， Japan，

South Korea and Spain−the percentage of

women who stayed at home was higher at both life stages than among women under other welfare regimes． The percentages of women wllo stayed at home when they had children under school age and when their youngest child was in school， respectively，

were 55．7％ and 32．396 in Japan，41．1％ and 30．1％in South Korea， and 43．0％and 33．7％in Spain．

  However， some aspects of women s employment behaviour showed considerable

variations irit17i；ワ eacll welfare regime． In Finland， a social−delnocratic country，72．5％of women worked as full−time employees wllile they llad children under school age， as opposed to only 30．4％of women in Sweden．

Conversely，54．7％of Swedish women repolsted

having worked part−time before their

youngest child started school， compared to just 16．9％in Finland． Similar variations were found among tlle countries witll a liberal welfare regime． Only 25．5％of UK women reported having worked full−time while they had children under school age， compared to 52．7％in the United States．

  It seems that the proportion of full−time and part−time employment differs considerably by country， regardless of welfare regime． The proportion of women maintaining full−time employment when their youngest child was in scllool was highest in the United States，

Finland and France， with percentages of

6］．9％，75．496and 60．4％， respectively． In these

cou飢ries， tlle percentage of part−time employlnent、vas rather io、v at around 15％to 25％．Full・time employment was less common in the UK， Austria and Japan；the proportion

of women in these three countries who held full−time jobs while they had children under school age was 17．2％，16．8％ and 22．3％，

respectively． Some countries， meanwhile，

exhibited comparatively higher percentages of part−time employment；in the UK， Norway，

Sweden， Austria， Germany and（only when the women s youngest child was in school）

Japan，40％to 60％of women worked part−

time．

Women s Employment Status and Educational Attainment：When Women Have Pre−school Children

  Figure 2 shows the distribution of women s employment status by educational attainment when they had children under scllool age fbr all 12 countries． Tlle percentage of women who stayed at llome was lligller among

women who had completed no more than

secondary education than for tllose with higher education in countlsies witll liberal，

social−democrat．ic， and conservative welfare regimes． In the countries with a liberal regime

（Canada， the UK and the United States），25％

to 50％of women without higher education stayed home with their child；among women with higher education， this percentage was 20％to 30％． The social・democratic countries had lower stay−at−home rates overall， but again， women with lligher education were less likely to stay at home with their child（with percentages less than 1096） than those without higher education （10％to 25％）． A

similar tendency can be observed under

conservative welfare regimes． In Austria，

France and Germany， the percentage of

一

women without higller education who stayed home with tlleir pre−school child ranged from

30％to 50％；among women with higher

education， it was around 10％to 20％．

  However， in East Asian countries， the

percentage of women who stayed at home did not differ much based on women s educational attainment． In Japan， the percentage of women who stayed at home was 50％to 60％

f（）rwomen of both educational levels；in South

Figure 2． Women，s employment status by educational attainment， when a child、 as under school age

Canada， seconoda巧 or less（n＝140）         ．42．9．      3L4 ^25．ラ｛

       ．

Canada， higher（n＝116）  法      144．0      35．3 ^A、r2助

UK， secondary or less（n＝216） ．11Ll     38．0 ^50．91

29◆0      383 ^{32．71    A}

Liberal

       UK， higller（n＝107）

      US， secondary or lrss（n＝352）

       US， higher（n＝170） 、

5L4      18，8 ^{．ヒ∨ゴ29．8｛一＿}

55．3       24．7 ^旨．r、20．0］

Finland， secOndary or less（n＝291）      ．．量71．5 144 ^{1411｛  w「}

、

．．．． 一

         ．㌢

74．5      −    2L9 3．7        ．

      Finland， higher（n＝137）

Socia1−       Norway， secondary or less（n＝230） ≡r 24．8       48，7 26．5｛^{、げ、sA、r}

．．503．1

：．．＿．．惑 ^6．91 ．

democratic

      Norway， higher（n＝306）

       Sweden， secondary or less（n＝222）

      Sweden， higher（n＝180）

嚢、

藷sr

25．7       509

巫

       、

339      61．7 44

馨§14．5壽        343 5121

26．4   が      54，0 ^A．．．19．5｛

   ．

」      嶽49．7蘂き糞 L．。、裟難         19．6 ^{‥ヒ30．71…一}       Austr恒， seconddary or less（n＝365）

       Austria， higber（n＝87）

       France， secondary or Iess（n＝714）

Conservative

       France，11igller（n＝435）

      Gennally， secondary or less（n＝525）

       Gemlany， higher（n＝Il2）

議．、、 1燃ξ _{w   ．}^三．∨ il．

：ラ1

．・．．一ぷ待ぶ

61．8 蓉．．蟹．ζ      264

肇

二．曇濠、ξき．萎竃33．1 言嚢．『旨§藷≡         362 ^げ、ρ_{30．7｛A……}^．「

灘鍵影393

^{灘「灘． 39．3  「．．「21蚕}

き灘27」‖鱗1    ♪．  ρ

224      50．51

・ぷ19β ^烈 22．1 58」｝

．．＼㌧

．．・、ぴ

， 、、＼

織42．5

該．蘂．・﹁

・．嚢 旨・・15，5 ^{42」｝一一幽A．}

      Japan， secondary or Iess（n＝217）

      Japan， higller（n＝107）

East Asia

  ＆  S・uth K・・ca・・ec・nd・巧 ・・1…（・＝497）

      Spain， secolldary or Iess（n＝797）

      Spain，11igher（n＝170）

☆    一・1、 、。，．44．5^籔 滋 繧     ．．墨    」8」0 37511．「「．1．1．．．

1彦・膨・．磯．

衰簗3L9 ^{F．    195}

型

セ ．、ぱ

懲  一      57．7

26．5 ^．「「15．91

SOURCE：ISSP，2012

薩lFull−time

  0％   10％  20％  30％  40％  50（レそ〕 60％  70％  80％  90％ 100％

Part−time  9．r Stayed at home

Korea， around 40％of women of both

educational levels stayed home． In these countries， the stay−at−home rate itself was higher than in other countries． For example，

in Japall，58．1％of women stayed at home even if they had attained higher education．

  In some cOuntries， it apPears that women who have received higher education are more likely to be full−time employees than those who have not． These disparities in full−time employment rate by educational level were seen in several countries， regardless of the type of welfare regime， and they were widest in the UK， Norway， Austria， France and Spain． On the other hand， there was not much difference in fu11−time employment rate by educational levels in tlle United States，

Finland， Germany and South Korea．

  As we have already noted， tlle percentages of part−time as well as ful1−time employment vary ・idely across countries． In addition， part−

time employment is not necessarily associated with lower educational attainment． Rather， in lO of 12 countries， the part−time employment rate was higher among women with higher education than among those witllout it．

Women s Employment Status and Educational Attainment：When Women s Youngest Child Was at School

  、Ve will llow examille the relationship between omen s employment and educationaI attainment、 as tlleir children grow older．

Figure 3 sllows tlle distril）ution of women s employment status by educational attainment for all 12 countries du1°ing the time wllen their youngest child was ill school．

  The percentage of women who stayed

home declined in all 12 countries， compared with their previous life stage． In addition， in the liberal and the social−democratic countries，

there was no longer much difference in the stay−at−home rate by educational level．

However， under conservative welfare regimes

（Austria， France and Germany）and in South Korea and Spain， this difference based on educationaUevel persisted， with women who had attained higher education being less inclined to stay at home．

  In most of the 12 countries， the full−time employment rate was higlle1唱among women

with higher education than among those

・ithout it． Here South Korea  ・as an

exceptional case， showing virtually no

difference bet ・een the two educational levels，

with a full−time employment rate of 49．5％

among women with no more than secondary education and 48．0％for more highly educated Women．

  The part−time employment rate was higher in some countries（including the UK， Norway

and Sweden）among women without higher

education， whereas in otller countries， there was little difference between the two groups．

The evidence suggests that the relationship between part−time employment and women s educational attainment is not consistent within each type of welfare regime．

Discussion

  This study llas examined how the

distribution of women s employment status as well as tlle relationsllip between women s

educational attainment and employment

一

Figure 3． Women°s employment and educational attainment， after the youngest child started school

Canada， seconodary or less（n＝129） ．z    ． ！49．6・．      「、 ．，．         38．0 ；1241^{珊．∨「．ヒ}

Canada， higher（n＝104）  き   、＿     熟      ．       悪．．絃         《．

57．7．1  ミ「

       、 ．      さ

塁 30．8 ^1｜51、

≡灘203．ぶ 635 ^{1621舳、．幽肘}

詮．儲 了

詫蒙態．・  一．． 藩37．6鑛：

購    52フ

^∬71

       UK，11igher（n＝93）

       US， secondary or lrss（n＝331）

      US， higher（n＝149）

、s

1〜輪．澱． 露養：；ミξき595、妻聾き遥蕪蓑 20．9  了巴働

亘灘．ぺ 藏67」簸総

翻，

馨  2G．8幽㌢．

iΣ腫

1

、8

コr

1 レ ．

繋糠．c弼、 菜

     184内

．一．．．、．∨

巫

灘 ^{・−814蔑   1}

繍購．鱗，

^{ぷ態活1． 15．7 2．9}

べ λ1

39．0       5L8 921       Finland， secondary or lcss（n＝244）

       Finland， higller（n＝102）

Social−      Norway， secondary or less（n＝195）

democratic

       Norway， higher（n＝246）

      Sweden， secondary or less（n＝202）

       Sweden， higher（n＝150）

67．5 30．5  2．0       、

36．6 r      55．0

鋤

       ．−

50．7      46．7 ^2．7

Austria， secondary or Iess（n＝365）     30．1         452 ^24．7｝

Austria， higher（n＝87） ．。．     494 42．5 ^{8」｛一「}

57」      28」

巫

66．4      25．6 8了｛

      France， seconda「y or less（n＝623）

Conservative

      France， higller（n＝360）

       Gemlany， secondary or less（n＝435）

       Ge㎜any，1軸er（n＝85）

37．2        384 ^{244｛．一 o−．}

49．4 38．8 1L8｝^ヒ．

24．3 42．3 ^{3331．．．一今}

3Ll 37．7 3Lり

49．5      、エ    18．7

鋤

       Japan， secondaty or less（n＝222）

       Japan， lligher（nニ106）

East Asia

  ＆     South Korea， secondar｝ or less（n＝477） ．

       Spain， secondary or less（n＝774）  ，．

       Spain， higher（n＝153）  ㌢

多48．0 ^、．    ・ ・ 属       3α6 2L41〜v

42」 ［      19．9 38．0｝＾．♪丁…∨ ．

66．7         209 ^124｝…一

SOURCE：ISSP，2012

圓Full−time

  0％  10％  20％  30％  40％  50％  60％  70％  80％  90％  IOOo／o

Part−time  仁Stayed at home

differs based on the type of welfare regime．

  First， we examined tlle distribution of women s employment status in each country by life stage． We found some differences between welfare regimes， as well as within

each type of welfare reglme． On one hand， the percentage of women staying at home was lower in the social−democratic countries of Finland， Norway and Sweden at both life stages． On the other hand， East Asian and

southern European countries， such as Japan，

South Korea and Spain， had higller percentages of women who staved at home both when they had children under school age and when their cllildren were in school．

  However， full−time and part−time employment rates showed a considerable

difference within each、velfare regime， and no

consistent tendency was observed with

respect to each type of welfare regime．

Higher full−time employment rates were seen in the United States， Finland and France；the full−time employment rate was Iow in the UK， Austria and Japan． As for part−time employment， higher rates were found in the UK， Norway， Sweden， Austria， Germany and Japan， a set of countr三es that spanned all f6ur welfare regime groups．

  Next， this paper examined differences in the distribution of ・omen s employment status at the t ・o hfe stages by educational attainment fbr the 12 countries．、可hen、vomen had cllildren under school age， the percentage of、volnen who stayed at home was higher among women with no more than secondary education than

among those with higller education in

countries with a liberal， social−democratic or conservative regime． However， in East Asian countries， the percentage of women who stayed at llome was high regardless of wome1ゴs educat三〇nal attainment． Furthermore，

disparities ill tlle full−tinle employment rate by educatiollal leve1、vere seen in several countries， again seemingly unrelated to tlle type of welfare regime． Higher−educated women were more likely to be employed full−

time than tllose with less education in the UK，

Norway， Austria， France and Spain． On the other hand， there was not much difference in

the full−time employment rate between

educational levels in tlle United States， Finland，

Germany and South Korea． In addition， in 10 0f the 12 countries， the part−time employment rate was higher for better−educated than for less−educated women．

  Once women s youngest child has entered school， in liberal and social−democratic countries， there was no longer much difference in the stay−at−home rate by educational level．

However， under conservative welfare regimes and ▲n South Korea and Spain， the stay−at−

home rate continued to vary depending on

women

s extent of education． The full−time employment rate was higher for better−

educated  ・ornen tllan for those  ・itll less education in most of the 12 countries studied．

The part−time employment rate was higher for less educated women than fbr tllose with higher education in the UK， Norway and Sweden． However， ill other countries， there was not much difference in the part−time employment rate by educational level．

  The evidence suggests that women s

employment rate can be explained by the type of welfare regime to a certain extent． It is high under social−democratic regimes where all aspects of de−familialisation are high． In contrast， women s employment rate is rather low in East Asian and southern European countries where the level of de−familialisation，

especially within households， is low． Women s employment rates in countries ・ith liberal and conservative welfare regimes exhibit

trends somewhere between these two

一  extrernes．

   However， once we break down the

employment rate into full−time and part−time componentS， a great variation emerges within welfare regimes． For example， among the social−democratic countries， the full−time employment rate was much higller in Finland tllan in Nolsway or Sweden；similarly， among the three CountrieS with COnServative regimeS，

it was higher in France than in Austria or

Germany． This might be because the

proportion of fulI−time and part−time work differs by country， refiecting country−specific labour market structure．

  VVhen we fbcus on the relationship between

women s educational attainment and

employment， we see that the type of welfare regime only partly explains the variation among the 12 countries． The comparatively smaller differences in women s employment rate by educational level in East Asian countries can be explained by their strong familialism， according to which women are expected to engage in family care regardless of their extent of educational attainment．

Ho ・ever， in continental and southern European countries， highly educated women are more likely to be in the labour fbrce than those with less education， suggesting that the explanation of familialism is not applicable there． In the countries with a social−democratic welfare regime， most women are employed regardless of tlleir educational attainment， in line witll the explanation of high Ievels of de−

familialisation in these countries；however，

countries with a liberal welfare regime exhibit asimilar tendency of minimal difference in

women s employment rate based on

educational attainment， especiaIly at the life stage when their children have begun school．

This finding is contrary to the hypothesis that highly educated women have greater ability to participate in the labour market（due to their greater resources to aff（）rd child care）

in countries with a liberal welfare regime．

  Furthermore， the relationship between

women

s full−time or part−time employment and their educational attainment varies within each type of welfare regime， as well as by life stage． The finding that part−time employment rate is higher among better−educated women than those with less education， and stay−at−

home rate is lower among better−educated than those with Iess education suggests that ln many CountrleS， part−tlme emplOyment is offered as a way to keep well−educated mothers in the labour force；but again， this phenomenon does not appear to be strongly associated with the type of welfare regime．

  Further analysis is needed to explain the variations in the distribution of women s employment status as well as the relationship

between women s employment and their

educational attainment between and within welfare regimes。 In particular， analyses focusing on the rates of full−time and part−

time employment and how they differ based on educational attainment−factors that do not seem to be determined by the type of welfare regime−would be helpful． It may be necessary to take into account the nature of each country s labour market structure−for example， to what extent it is male−dominated．

It may also be important to consider the

March 2016 Women s Employment and Educational Attainment

arrangements available to supPort women s employment in each nation． Investigating the

context of women s employment from a

framework that considers tl】e interaction

一

37一

between the type of ・elfare regime and other

social factors will produce a clearer

understanding of the primary determinants of women s employment decisions．

References

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  distributed by Columbia University Press．

Brewster， Karin L．＆Ronald R． Rindfuss．2000．

  Fertility and women s employment in

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Brinton， Marv C．＆Sunllwa Lee．2001． Women s   education and the labor rnarket in Japan and   Soutll Korea． In Mary C． Brinton （Ed．），

Nf）／15一

  150）．Stanford：Stanford University Press．

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一

Appendix Table 1．Categorisations of respondenfs educational attainment．

Secondary education or less Higher education

Canada No飴mal education Primaり・school Some high scllool

Finished high school        〜

College／CEGEP／Technica1    〜

Some univcrsity ConlpIeted university Graduate studies

UK

No secondary qualifications

CSE， GCSE or equivalent， ceni6cate ofsccondaty qualification A−1cvcl or cquivalent

Higher below degree level

Dcgrcc， univcrsity ofCNAA or diploma

US

Lcss tllan high school High school

Junior college Baclle｜or dcgree Graduatc schoo1 Finland Primary education

Comprehensive， primary and lower secondary Post−comprehensive， vocational school or course General upPer secondary education or cer6f〕cate

、bcationa｜post−secondary non−tcrtiary education

Polytcchnics

Univcrsity，10wcr academic degrcc， BA Universit）〜11igher academic degree， MA

Nonvay Primary completcd

Secondary， vocational incompletc Secondary， academic incomplctc Secondary， vocational comPlcted Secondary， academic completed

UniverSity， COIIege， leSS than】yCar University， collcge，1−2 ycars Univcrsity， college，3−4 years Univcrsity， collegc，5years or morc

Swcden Incomp｜etc primary／comprehensive school Primary／comprehensive school pre 1962（6−8 ycars）

Prima「y／comprchensivc school post 1962（9 ycars）

Lowcr sccondaワschooI Vbcational school（1963−70）

Vbcational schoo1（2 ycars）

30r 4 ycars gymnasium， acadcmic track

、bcationεll scllool post 1992

Gymnasium， academic track post 1992

Univcrsity studies、、 ithout degrec University degrce，1css tllan 3 years Univcrsity degree，3years or morc Doctors degree

Austria Primary complctcd， Hauptscl川1c Apprenticeship complcted Middle schoo1， vocational Sccondary comPleted， E4atura

Higher prof＞ssional schoo1， BHS Un｛versity completed

France Primary incompletc Primary completcd Gcnera｜sccondary lcvcl I

、bcational sccondary level 1

、bcational secondary levc12 1ncomplctc general secondary levc12 Gellcral secondary leve12

Collcgc Univcrsity

Gemlany Still at schoo1；7ycars ofschooling and morc School lcft、vitllout certificate

Lower secondary（Hauptschule）

Middlc schoo1（Mitt｝ere Reifb）

Secondaty， technica1（Fachhochschulreif＞）

Iligher secondary（Abitur）

、bcational training， degree from Gemlan dual system

、bCational training， master cransmen（Melster）

University ofapPlied sciences   （Fachhochschule）：bachclor University：bachclor Univershy ofapPlied sciences

  （Facllhochschule）：master or othcr degree University：master or othcr dcgree University：doctorate

Japan Junior high school completed

Stnl at lligh schoo1       〜

High school complctcd

Still atjunior collcgc or lmiversity Junior collcgc comPletcd Still at graduatc school Finisllcd lmivcrsity or graduatc

South Korca EICmcntary hlconlplctc Elclllcntary conlplctcd へ4｛ddlc school incoll1Pletc E4iddlc school coll1Plcted High school incon1P｜ete High school completed

Jlmior collcge incolllplctc Junior collcgc colnplctcd Univcrsity incompletc Univcrsity complctcd Mastcr degree incomplete Mastcr degree completed Doctoral degree incomplete Doctoral dcgrce completed Spain No品㎜al schooling， did not go to school

Less tllan 5 years ofibmal schooling Primary school completed

Lo、v scconda［y schoo1，junior high

、bcational training， medium level profヒssional training Iligh scconda巧・scllool completcd

、bcational training，11igh lcvel prof㌃ssional training       ．

Tヒchnica｜architcctし1rc， tccllnical engineering，3years technical   school

3years completed non−technical university Architecture and engineering， technical schools College degree，4years

Of五cial graduate schoo1， PhD， master

SOURCE：ISSP，2012

（にしむら じゅんこ、本学科准教授）