FROM THE T H E A T R I C A L T O THE AESTHETIC HERO: ON THE
PRIVATIZATION OF T H E IDEA OF VIRTUE IN DAVID'S
BRUTUS AND SABINES
STEFAN GERMER AND HUBERTUS KOHLE
I
I n i h c o p e n i n g lincs o f his Emile, p u b l i s h c d in 1762, J c a n - J a c q u c s R o u s s e a u rccalls Plato's Republk. T h e G r c c k p h i l o s o p h c r ' s w o r k is said 10 bc i h c fincsi ever p u b l i s h c d o n c d u c a i i o n . A c e o r d i n g 10 R o u s s e a u a p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n fö l l o w i n g i h c G r e e k c x a m p l c w a s n o longer possible in his o w i i l i m e , since c o n d i t i o n s had f u n d a m e n i a l l y c h a n g e d . ' L ' i n s t i t u i i o n p u b l i q u e n ' c x i s i c p l u s , et nc p e m p l u s exister, parce q i r o ü \\ n ' y a plus d e patrie il nc petit p l u s y avoir de citoyens. Ces d e u x m o t s , patrie et citoyen. d o i v e n t ctre elTaccs d e s l a n g u c s modernes.*1U n l i k e in a n t i q u i i y , when m o r a l i t y w a s d e f i n e d as p r i v a t e consent 10 p u b l i c d e m a n d s , R o u s s e a u u n d e r s t a n d s m o r a l i t y as a n a g r e e m e n t with 'la n a t u r c ' , Chat is, with oneself. R o u s s c a u ' s a b a n d o n n i e n i o f t h e m o d e l o(
a n t i q u i t y is pari o f the bourgeois search for oneself, w h i c h c o n e e i v e s o f the p u b l i c s p h e r c as the generalizaiion o f personal e x p e r i e n c e a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e s itself categorieally f r o m the classic»! definition o f the r e a l m o f politics.
1t is i h c a i m o f the prcscni essay to i n v c s i i g a i c the c o n s e q u e n c e s of this c o n s i d c r a i i o n for the p r o d u e t i o n a n d reeeption o f ' h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g ' a n d , in using tlie particular c x a m p l e o f ( w o paintings b y J . L . D a v i d , to render
manifest the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f such n e w n o t i o n s as far as b o t h f o r m a n d m c a n i n g are c o n c e r n e d .
Fificcn ycars aftcr the first p u b l i c a t i o n o f Emile\ in 1777, t h e D i r c c t c u r G e n e r a l d e s B ä t i m e n t s d u Roi, the C o m t c d ' A n g i v i l l e r , r e q u i r e d history painters 10 represent e x c m p l a r y virtues laken f r o m events o f a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n history. T h i s requirement Iiis i n t o the c o n t e x t o f the reform o f ' h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g ' , a n d c o r r e s p o n d s to postulates s u c h as those a d v a n c e d b y the
treatises o f e n l i g h t c n c d art criticism, in particular thosc o f L a F o n t d e S a i n t - Y c n n e . Y e t a i the m o m e n t o f its f o r m u l a t i o n this d e m a n d w a s a l r c a d y
a n a c h r o n i s t i c : its premises (i.e. the c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e c s s c n c c o f politics as d e v c l o p c d with the classical model in m i n d , as w e l l as the coneept that history presents c x a m p l e s for life) h a v e been replaced b y n e w , specifically b o u r g e o i s coneeptions.3 A report concerning i h c S a l o n o f 1777 g a v e a n a e c o u n t o f i h c
A n History Vol. 9 No. 2 J u n e 1986
©RKP 1986 0I4I-6790/86/O902-I68 SI.SO/1
FROM THE THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HERO
a b o r t i v e a t t e m p t to p r o v i d e n e w Impulses lo 'history p a i n i i n g ' through a series o f r c p r e s c n i a i i o n s o f virtucs, a n d f o r m u l a t e d c o n s c q u e n c c s for futurc prqjects:
Le c h o i x des sujets est en gencral d a n s le genre tragique [as was written in reference 10 the p a i n t i n g s to be o r d e r e d for che next S a l o n ] a f m d e voir a u premicr S a l o n et I ' ä m e d e s A r d s t e s et I'cfTct sur ic p u b l i c q u i s'esl peu o e c u p e d e s soins q u e Ton avait pris d e pie'senirr u n e s u i u e d e vertus. L e croiroil-on p l u s i e u r s A n i s t e s a v o i e n i si p a r f a i l t e m c n t o u b l i e le poini essentielle q u i d e v r o i l servir ä la base de leurs i r a v a u x q u ' i l s o n i faii mettre d a n s le livrei de d c i a i l s d e sujet, m a i s s a n s litre, il etoit t r o p tard p o u r y remedier lorsque Von s'en est a p p e r c u .4
B y o m i t t i n g liiles the p a i n i e r s h a d u n d e r m i n e d d ' A n g i v i l l e r ' s intention to present t h e e x e m p l a r y a n d thus eternally v a l i d . T h r o u g h the extensive d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f tlie hisiorical c o n d i l i o n s ( t h e c a t a l o g u e entries were in pari almost üierally b o r r o w e d from V i l l a r e t ' s Histoire de la France depuis l'etabtiaemtnt de la monarchie jusqu'au regne de Louis XIV)? w h i c h directed the interest o f the p u b l i c t o w a r d s the u n i q u e a n d u n r c p c a t a b l e , 'history p a i n t l n g ' was c o n c c i v c d o f not as the representation o f the gencral but o f the i n d i v i d u a ! a n d specific.
T h e m e a n i n g o f the subjeet represenied was o b v i o u s l y not i m m e d i a t c l y evident; it was o n l y the speeification o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s i h m rendered it inteltigible a n d interesting. T h e D i r c c t i o n G e n e r a l e a t t e m p t e d to m e d the altcred taste o f the p u b l i c b y o r d e r i n g 'sujets tragiques1, thus d r a w i n g forth a new aspect f r o m traditional t h e m e s w h i c h was relevant for the present. W'hat o n c is to u n d e r s t a n d b y 'sujet tragique* o r , as il w a s later called, 'sujet noir1,6
will be exemplificd herc b y m e a n s o f o n c p a i n t i n g , w h i c h will p r o v i d e us w i i h the b a c k g r o u n d o f D a v i d ' s p r o c e d u r c .
I I
A m o n g the themes p r o p o s e d for the S a l o n ever since 1777 n o e x a m p l e s explicitly q u a l i f i e d as representing v i r t u e s can b e f o u n d . O n the contrary, events f r o m ancient, b i b l i c a l , F r c n c h o r e v e n n o n - E u r o p e a n history seemed to h a v e bcen proposed o n the basis o f their e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t rather t h a n for the m o d c l they e m b o d y .
A typical e x a m p l c o f such a scene is ofFcrcd b y J e a n - S i m o n B e r t h e l c m y w i i h Iiis Manliiis Torquatus, e x h i b i t e d at the S a l o n o f 1785 (plate 17). A s a
c o n s u l , M a n l i u s T o r q u a t u s h a d to c o n d e m n his o w n son to d e a t h , because the son h a d Icd a v i c t o r i o u s attack in b a t l l e w i t h o u t a w a i t i n g the proper orders.
T h i s w a s interpreted as a v i o l a t i o n o f p u b l i c l a w . R o m a n history cclcbrates M a n l i u s T o r q u a t u s ' u n c o n d i t i o n a l a d h e r e n c e l o p r i n c i p l c s w h i c h are not to be influeneed by a n y p e r s o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , be i h c y based o n f a m ü i a l b o n d s or on the a c h i e v e m e n t s o f the c o n d e m n e d . B o t h p a i n t e r a n d critics are interesied in the presentation o f t h e conflict b e t w e e n c i v i c d u t y a n d personal desircs rather t h a n i n the d e p i c t i o n o f R o m a n v i r t u c . I n his Emile R o u s s e a u h a d d i s t i n g u i s h e d between the p u b l i c role ( ' h a b i t ' ) a n d the real cssence
( ' p e r s o n n e ' ) ; h e established t h a l the intrinsic q u a l i t i e s w e r e those a c q u i r e d
FROM THE THEATRIGAL TO TM F. AESTHliTIC HF.RO
t h r o u g h private socialization, a n d h e critieized traditional h i s t o r i o g r a p h y for unilaterally stressing the p u b l i c role. A c o m p a r a b l e r c - e v a l u a l i o n o f t h e private realm led to i h r new interest in the personal e m o t i o n s o f the protagonist, as we found it in B c r i h e l c m y . I n d c c d R o m a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y h a d also i h c m a t i z e d the conflict between i n d i v i d u a l inelination a n d d e v o t i o n to principles, yet there the d i c e w e r e a l w a y s loaded in f a v o u r o f the p u b l i c interest. F o r the paintcr as well as for the critics the f u n d a m e n t a l p r i o r i i y of the p u b l i c d o m a i n was n o longer v a l i d . O n the c o n t r a r y , the R o m a n e t h i c was c o n c c i v c d o f as ' a t r o c c \ die father was b r a n d c d as a b a r b a r i a n , a n d the Solution p r o v i d e d for the conflict a p p e a r e d i n d i s s o n a n c e w i t h the sensibilities o f the Cime a n d as a violation of the preeepts o f ' n a t u r e ' . T h e interest focuses, therefore, o n the subjective, d e a l i n g with a m o r a l c o n e e p t i o n w h i c h is experieneed n o longer as necessary b u t i n d e e d as q u e s t i o n a b l c . O n e b e c o m e s interesled i n the psyche o f the protagonist; the p a i n t e r is required to represent i n a believable w a y not so tnuch the father's decision b u t the difliculty o f d e c i d i n g .
O n voit c o m b t e n il est d e c h i r e [as w e find i n a discussion a b o u t the father]
de l'ordrc qu'il v a d o n n c r , et c e p e n d a n t il le d o n n e ; c'est ainsi qu'il faul que le peintre cherche ä p r o d u i r e des g r a n d s clfcts par le cont raste et les o p p o s i t i o n s , et qu'il a d o u c i s s c les sujets q u i d a n s nos moeurs ne pourroient inspircr q u e l ' h o r r c u r et la ferocite.
P s y c h o l o g i z a t i o n here a p p e a r s as the o n c a n d o n l y w a y o f e x t r a c t i n g topical interest f r o m a t h e m e g r o w n u n f a m i l i a r ; it finds its expression in the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n u p o n the e m o t i o n a l reactions o f all the protagonists. T h e son Stands, c a l m a n d c o m p o s e d , in front o f h i s father. H i s attitude is in contrast to the violent outbursts o f the soldicrs w h o a e c o m p a n y h i m a n d to those o f the figure in the b a c k g r o u n d . B c r t h e l e m y t h u s increases the tension: f r o m the screnity o f the son to the i m p l o r i n g soidiers and finally u p to the father w h o is sitting o n a p l a t f o r m . T h e latter is presented b y B c r t h e l c m y as a torn figure, expressing physically the conHicting inicrcsis: his o u t s i r c t c h e d right a r m orders the c a r r y i n g out o f the e x e c u t i o n , his b e a d , h o w e v e r , is lurned a w a y . H i s left b a n d clutches his h e a n . H e r e w e e n c o u n t e r a h e r o d i s m a y e d b y the
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f his o w n d e c i s i o n . T h e representation o f the afflicted h e r o was u n d c r s i o o d by s o m e critics as a successful a d a p t a t i o n . O t h c r s implicitly recognized the m o d e r n i t y o f the Solution, as tliey critieized the faci that B c r t h e l e m y h a d g i v e n b y n o rrteans the i m a g e of a R o m a n hero, since they feit that such a s h a k e n figure w o u l d never h a v e becn in a position to pass the
verdict. W e h a v e i n d e e d here the i m a g e o f a m o d e r n hero, a h e r o w h o does not m a s t c r the Situation but is its v i c t i m . I n this w a y the a t t e m p t is m a d e to g r a s p the d i l e m m a o f the classical c o n e e p t i o n o f m o r a l i t y through pictorial m e a n s . T h a t B e r t h e l e m y d i d not c o m p l e t e l y sueeeed in his task is manifest in the c o n t e m p o r a r y crilicism raised against b i m , that his p a i n t i n g w a s theatrical.
T h e reproach o f theatricality a i m s at the i n a d e q u a e y o f content a n d f o r m ; it certifies that the s c h e m c o f c o m p o s i t i o n - w h i c h B c r t h e l c m y h a d , by the w a y , b o r r o w e d f r o m T i t i a n ' s Pesaro Madonna - sueeeeded o n l y partly in rendering the s e n t i m c n t a l i t y o f the 'sujet*.6 I n its escalation o f e m o t i o n s the c o m p o s i t i o n implies a steadfast a n d u n s w e r v i n g h e r o , yet reveals a figure j u s t as s h a k e n as
FROM THE THEATWCAL TO THE AESTHETIC HERO
all others, c m b o d y i n g not Ehe nccessary rigour o f c i v i c d u t y but thc personal horror a i thc fate to w h i c h thc son was d o o m e d . P u t a n o t h e r w a y , t h c c o m p o s i t i o n preparcs che w a y for a hcro w h o is at o n c w i t h necessity, a n d instead encounters o n e d c s p c r a t e l y o p p o s i n g it. Farial a n d gestural expression conscitute to s o m e extent thc o u t c r y o f the p r i v a t e against thc p u b l i c role d e m a n d e d b y thc c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s furecs thc artist 10 exaggerate expression even to thc point o f j c o p a r d i z i n g thc verisimilitude. P s y c h o l o g i z a t i o n a l o n c — as b e c o m e s e v i d e n t fror» this e x a m p l c - m a n a g c d to discover a m o d e r n aspeet in this traditional thcine. Still it was i n c a p a b l c o f e n d o w i n g thc subjeet w i t h a n a d e q u a t e f o r m .
A new c o n v i n c i n g Solution c a n o n l y l>e achieved by c h a n g i n g the w h o l c strueture o f thc picture. T h c represcruation o f thc inner conflict h a s to bc freed from its lies to the p h y s i c a l expression o f t h e protagonists a n d become the task of all m e a n s of c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s m e a n s d o i n g a w a y with certain c o m p o s i - tional schemes. ( T h c rolc o f' l i g n e p y r a m i d a l e ' a n d ' m a r c h e de la l u m i c r c ' , as are e x a m i n e d by P u t t f a r k e n ,J m a y bc rccalled.) T h e n o t i o n i h a l p a i n t i n g should g i v e US thc illusiou o f reality iisclf, as it w a s still sustained b y L a u g i e r , is rcplaccd by a c o n e e p t i o n , w h i c h gives p a i n t i n g the task not of i m i i a i i n g but ol pictorially eonstituting m c a n i n g , (hus d e f i n i n g p a i m i n g as a u i o n o m o u s , i.e.
not necessarily d e p e n d e n t o n externa! reality. A c o m p a r a t i v c l y carly a i t c m p i to ioad the strueture o f the entire picture with m e a n i n g , D o y c n ' s Ulysses and Andtomache (plate 18; S a l o n 1763), h a d to fail, because it remained b o u n d to an illusionistic c o n e e p t i o n . The Splitting of thc picture into two h a l v e s in order to depict a n insoluble conflict w e a k e n s thc effeet, since the centre is pcrccivcd not as m e a n i n g f u l s p a c c , b u t as a s i m p l e v o i d . T h c Space between t h c figures remains intcrpretable as part o f thc setting a n d not as the expression o f thc difierence betweeti the persons. T h i s is c x a c t l y what D i d e r o t critirized in his 1763 Salon.11 D a v i d ' s Brutus ( p l a t e 19; 1789) presents a n e x a m p l e o f a p i c t u r e ihat frees itsclf from the Conventions o f illusionistic p a i n t i n g a n d t h r o u g h thc redefinition o f all c o m p o s i t i o n a l m e a n s coneeives o f the a u t o n o m y o f p a i n t i n g as thc p r o d u e t i v e potential to represent thc conflict o f p r i v a t e and p u b l i c interests in a crcdiblc m a n n e r .
I I I
T h c B r u t u s - t h e m e h a d been b r o u g l u to p u b l i c attention b y V o l t a i r c ' s d r a m a o n the s a m c topic. F o r theoreticians s u c h as L a F o n t de S a i n t - Y c n n e a n d D i d e r o t , it served as e x e m p l a r y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r for a n e w type o f ' h i s i o r y painting' w h i c h a n n e d at t h e c o n v e y i n g o f m o r a l Statements. Beforc D a v i d the subjeet h a d been d e a l t w i t h b y F . H . F ü g e r a n d G . G . Lethiere. T h c former h a d chosen thc m o m e n t between the sentencing a n d the execution, as thc sons still hoped for p a r d o n , w h i l e the latter's t h e m e w a s the execution itsclf: o n e son being a l r c a d y d c a d a n d the o t h e r reeoiling at thc sight o f his brother's b l o o d . D a v i d , too, h a d originally t h o u g h t o f d c p i c i i n g the execution seene: B r u t u s a n d C o l l a t i n u s , the two consuls, w e r e to sit in front o f a tcmplc, thc lattcr covering /
his face w h i l e thc father w i t h c o m p o s e d m i e n w a t c h e d t h e e x e c u t i o n o f his 1
I-'ROM I HK THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HERO
sons. T h e lictors wcre [o h a v c a l r c a d y g r a b b c d t h e t w o s o n s , o n e o f w h o m was knccling b y (he cxccutioncr's block, i m p l o r i n g the father's m e r c y , while in the b a c k g r o u n d '2 o i h e r conspirators w c r c b e i n g b r o u g h l in. C o n t r a r y l o tradition a n d disrcgarding his original c o n c c p l i o n , D a v i d d e c i d c d not to represcni ihr p u b l i c a p p e a r a n c e o f ihe consul b u i i n s t c a d to l o c a i c d i e sccne in Brutus' h o u s e , in order to focus Oll the fathcr's p e r s o n a l reaction. W c are alrcady aeqtiainted with such a p r i v a t i z a t i o n 6 f a n a n t i q u c s u b j c c i f r o m the Qath of the Horatii - herc, too, the sccne h a d becn shiftcd f r o m t h e F o r u n i to a private h o u s e , in order to m a k c possiblc the c o n f r o n t a i i o n b e t w e e n a n hcroic decision a n d its personal consequences. T h e m o m e m d e p i c t e d is described i n the long title o f our painting: The first consul, Junius Brutus, returns home afitr the
condemnation of his sons, who had conspired ivith the Tarquins; lictors bring in the corpses of his sons, so that he may give them buritd. D a v i d c h o o s e s the m o m e n t öfter the d r a m a t i c decision; the s u b j c c i o f the p a i n t i n g is not the struggle between civic dtlty a n d private wishes, but rather t h e tcrriblc c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this struggle.
T h u s the hcro's role as a v i c t i m b e c o m e s e x p l i c i t l y t h e m a t i z e d , his dealing with the events is m a d e central, a n d a t t e n t i o n is led a w a y f r o m the action toward reflection. Even in his first sketches D a v i d w a s a l r c a d y interested in s h o w i n g B r u t u s , absorbed a n d alonc, sitting in the front l e f t - h a n d corner o f the p a i n t i n g . A g r o u p o f scveral o n l o o k e r s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s B r u t u s was planned for the right half o f the painting. S o o n , h o w e v e r , i h c g r o u p o f m o t h e r and d a u g h i e r s was d e v c l o p e d out o f this m o t i f , t h u s p r o d u c i n g a n accent equivalcnt to the consul's figure. T h e attention o f the g r o u p o n the right w a s led a w a y f r o m Brutus through the introduetion o f the lictors w h o entcr f r o m the left, so that the isolation o f the protagonist w a s intensified. A f t e r p o s i t i o n i n g the separate g r o u p s D a v i d had then to d c a l w i t h the p r o b l c m o f l i n k i n g t h e m s p a t i a l l y . H e i m r o d u c e d first the c o l u m n s o f t h e a t r i u m , o f w h i c h the one behind B r u t u s sei htm apart f r o m the rest o f the a c t i o n ; the lictors becamc v i s i b l c between the first a n d second c o l u m n s ; a n o t h e r g r o u p o f onlookers a p p e a r e d in the scmi-circlc s u r r o u n d i n g m o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r s . T h e Solution (inally given in the p a i n t i n g simplifies a n d intensifics the c o m p o s i t i o n : the lictors enter through the Icfi d o o r w a y , b e h i n d the D c a R o m a ; the d r a p e d bicr creates a background for B r u t u s ' h e a d . T h e g r o u p o f m o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r s is separated from the consul b y the first c o l u m n o f the a t r i u m a n d a c h a i r w h o s c back is turned to B r u i u s . T h e o n l o o k e r s f o u n d i n the firsi sketches h a v c disappeared. O n l y the figure o f the m a i d rernains seated at right. D a v i d Tills the e m p t y Space w i t h s p a r i n g l y chosen f u r n i t u r c a m o n g w h i c h the figures are placcd. T h e actions are intensified i h r o u g h s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . D a v i d focuses attention o n the g r o u p o f m o t h e r a n d d a u g h i e r s , w h i l e all s e c o n d a r y cflecis, such as the severed heads o f the s o n s o r the w e e p i n g face o f the m a i d a i right, are c l i m i n a i c d , since they risk d i s i r a c t i n g the v i e w e r ' s a t t e n t i o n f r o m the m a i n action.
A s is generally k n o w n , '3 the r e n u n c i a t i o n o f a traditional p y r a m i d a l c o m p o s i l i o n a n d the placing o f the m a i n p r o t a g o n i s i in the s h a d o w bewildered the a c a d e m i c critics. T h e conscious i n f r a c t i o n o f t h e s e i C o n v e n t i o n s must be understood as a n attempt to p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l c f o r m o f presentation for the 'sujet'. D a v i d renounced the traditional hierarchies, t h u s liberating i h c
PROM THE THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HKRO
separate e l e m c n i s p f t h e p a i n l i n g , all o f w h i c h he c o u l d therefore use to c o n v e y m e a n i n g .
T h e p a i n t e r h a s ilie Viewer direct Iiis attention to the s e c o n d a r y ligures a n d places the Sewing basket__rather t h a n a m a i n feure i n d i e centre o f the f
painling. B o t h tialvcs o f i h e picture form a c o m r a s i o f l i g h i a n d s h a d o w as well as a n Opposition betwecn a siatic System o f vertical a n d horizontal Ünes ( i n t o w h i c h B r u t u s is inscribed) a n d a d y n a m i e pair o f d i a g o n a l lincs f o r m e d by t h e contour o f i h r m o t h e r ' s bac k, o n the o n e b a n d , a n d the Silhouette ol the m a i d im the other. T h e left side o f the picture c o m b i n e s in a d o s e relicl all the
Clements o f the confliel: behind the insccurely crossed legs o f d i e consul w e can recognize a stone rclief o f d i e C a p i i o l i n e s h e - w o l f s u c k l i n g R o m u l u s a n d R c m u s . A t the eonsul's left rises the d a r k Silhouette o f the s i a t u e o f i h e D e a R o m a , o n the plinth o f w h i c h B r u t u s is resting bis e l b o w , w h i l e bis h e a d is set off b y the b r i g h l eolour o f the s h r o u d b e h i n d h i m . ' R a i s o n d ' c t a f , personal sullering. the c o m rast between t h e Hille children o n the relief o f the C a p i t o l i n e s h e - w o l f a n d B n i l u s ' d e a d sons o n i h e bier - all this is c o n c i s c l y r e n d e r r d by the p i c i o r i a l Organization, irresolvably l i n k i n g the p r o t a g o n i s l s to such Clements as render the conllici physically e v i d e n t . S i m i l a r l y the g r o u p o f the m o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r s compresses horror, aversion a n d helplessn<'ss into o n e relief c o m p o s i t u m , thus g a i h e r i n g logether in a c o n c e m r a t e d Space a n d h e i g h t e n i n g the i m p a c i o f the e l e m c n i s charged wich m e a n i n g . T h e pressing logether o f the figures a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g e m p t i n e s s o f the r o o m , w i t h iis sparsc l'urnishing a n d i i s oppressive architecture, creates a n Opposition of themes: i h e a n i i i h e s i s i n t e n d c d b y t h e d i v i s i o n of s p a c c becomes evident.
S i a r t i n g froni lefi to right D a v i d presenis i h e centre wall of the h o u s c w i t h the d o o r w a y ; i h e n CÖmeS a dark corridor w l i i c h is s e p a r a t e d froni the inner c o u r t y a r d b y t h e c o l u m n s of the c o l o n n a d e , w h i c h cncloses the c o u r t y a r d ac the left-hand side o f the rear. T h e v e n i e a l l y accentuated f r a m e t h u s o b t a i n e d is c o m p l e t e d in front b y the m a s s i v e stone s l a b s o f the floor. T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a high horizon for i h e receding o r t h o g o n a l s m a k e s the g r o u n d a p p e a r as if seen f r ö m a b o v e a n d , since che v a n i s h i n g ünes o f i h r g r o u n d d o not fully c o r r e s p o n d / co i h o s c o f the laceral c o l o n n a d e . the g r o u n d floor in i h e foreground, w h e r e 1
B r u t u s is s e a l e d , a p p e a r s to b e s i i p p i n g out o f i h e f r a m e . T h e rcsult. diercfore, is that B r u t u s does n o i really sit inside che room buc a p p e a r s rather to sil_iri_ |
front ol it. A l s o che central p l a n e cännöl br referred Co as Space; rather, il is a c o m p a c t rclief seene w h i c h Stretches from che bier carrying ihe corpse o n the left o f the piciure across lo the first lictor, then to the foremost c o l u m n o f che lateral c o l o n n a d e , then o n to the c h a i r a n d i h e table, followed b y the group o f
the m o t h e r and d a u g h t e r s a n d d o w n to the chair in the r i g h t - h a n d corner o f the piciure b e h i n d w h i c h the m a i d is sitting. T h e l o w e r m a r g i n o f this relief consisis o f the fourth horizontal line o f i h e Moor. T h e r e a p p e a r s i o be n o clear d e l i m i i a t i o n in the Upper part o f d i e p a i n l i n g . l c is i m p o r c a m for the relief elTect t h a i the m i d d l e zone breaks t h e spatial d e v e l o p m e n t laid o u t i n the floor
lines. A t t h e left, t h e sharp light outlines i h e bier a n d d i e lictor a g a i n s i che d a r k b a c k g r o u n d w i t h o u l g i v i n g them c o r p o r e a l i t y . T h e p o i n t c o n c e r n i n g the
flamess o f the m i d d l e z o n e b e c o m e s clear w h e n o n e l o o k s at t h e lateral c o l o n n a d e : the four c o l u m n s are s o f o r e s h o n e n e d that they g i v e scarcely a n y
KROM THE THEATR1CAL TO THE A EST H ET IC HERO
fecling of d e p l h . M o r c o v c r , thc clolh sirctched belbre i h e c o l u n m s Stresses i h c p l a n e surface. D u e 10 ihc levelüng liiere is n o Space left in i h e i n n e r c o u r i for figures or furniture. T h e y are all c o m p r e s s e d l o g e t h c r i n i o a i h i n s i r i p , m o r c or less raking u p i h e spacc bctwcen thc fourrh horizontal linc a n d i h e first c o l u m n o f thc lateral eolonnade. F o r that rcason i h c f u r n i t u r e appears greatly
foreshortened, so that, even t h o u g h the r e l a t i o n s h i p b c t w c e n thc v a r i o u s Clements placed o n e bchind thc other scems q u i t c clcar, it is i m p o s s i b l c to d e t e r m i n c prccisclv whcre thc table is Standing. T h c m o t h e r a n d d a u g h i e r s arc c o m p r e s s e d into a configuration, thc o u t l i n e o f w h i e h is clcarly d i s t i n g u i s h r d through thc b a c k g r o u n d a n d thc latcrally adjoining Clements. T h e slrcss on thc i n d i v i d u a l c o l o u r s o f thc c o m p o s i t i o n intensifics the (latness o f the c o m p o s i l i o n , so that — in spitc o f all a i t c m p t s lo represent a s p a t i a l g r a d u a t i o n o f i h e figures in relaiion to cach other - ihey reniain c o n s i s i e n t l y flai.
Illusionistic painting strives to c o n v i n c e us t h a i it reflects as faithfully as p o s s i b l c events that h a v e oecurred o u t s i d e i h e r e a l m o f p a i n t i n g . D a v i d breaks w i t h this coneeption: the e n i i r c c o m p o s i l i o n o f his p i c i u r e c o n s i a n t l y calls to rnind ihe fact that d i e d e p i c i e d exists o n l y inside the r e a l m o f p a i n t i n g a n d o n l y as a resuli o f ihe consequent use o f pictorial m c a n s . T h e e v e n t s depicted are not d o c u m e n t e d but construeted: reality exists o n l y as fiction.' T h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between thc w h o l c a n d the Clements c o m p o s i n g it, as well as that b e i w e e n i h e elemenis i h e m s e l v e s , is t h u s essentially t r a n s f o r m e d . T h e p a r a m c i e r for i h e Organization o f parts is n o longcr thc h i c r a r c h y o f thc real, but raiher the requirement o f the p a i n t i n g itself. T h e c o n i e x i a l o n e e n d o w s i h c i n d i v i d u a l Clements w i l h m e a n i n g a n d resulis o n l y f r o m the pictorial
. Organization. I n comparison w i l h the p r o t a g o n i s i s o f ß e r t h e l e m y ' s picturc, w h a i sirikes us in Brutus is the reduetion o f g e s t u r a l a n d facial expression.
D a v i d d c v e l o p e d Brutus' a i ü i u d e f r o m o n c o f passive, i n t r o v e r i b r o o d i n g ( w h c r e thc consul s u p p o r t e d Iiis h e a d o n Iiis right b a n d ) a n d g a v e a p e c u l i a r twisi to his ligure, so thai the l o w e r p a r i o f Ins b o d y a p p e a r s i n profile a n d turned 10 i h e left, whereas the u p p e r p a r i o f i h c b o d y a n d the head are frontally d i r e c l c d towards thc viewer. T h c face h a d o r i g i n a l l y bcen lowercd, looking d o w n , o r even covered b y the h a n d raised to thc h e a d ; n o w , h o w e v e r , B r u t u s is e m p t i l y gazing at the v i e w e r w i t h o u t really seeing h i m , a n d his h a n d b a s been r e m o v e d from Iiis h e a d , so t h a i the consul a p p e a r s as if s u d d e n l y roused f r o m d e e p thought. I n c o m p a r i s o n to the v e h e m e n t e m o t i o n a l o u i b u r s t o f his wife a n d d a u g h i e r s . Brutus is s h o w n c a l m , b u t not a t t e n t i v e . H e looks petrified, as if through thc m e r e e n i r a n c e o f t h c lictors thc füll e x t e n t o f ihc i r a g e d y that h a d oecurred had b e c o m e apparent to h i m . T h e e m p t i l y staring eyes, the u n c e r t a i n l y placed feet a n d the p e c u l i a r iwist o f the b o d y b e i r a y the
< fact that B r u t u s ' c a l m is n o i o f a sioic but r a t h e r o f a n a p a i h e t i c nature, i t a m e l y , that h e is not m a s t c r but v i c t i m o f thc Situation. A s o p p o s e d 10 B e r t h e l c m y , D a v i d is c a p a b l e o f m a k i n g d o w i t h a m i n i m u m o f e m o t i o n a l
1 expressivencss, since he frees Iiis protagonist f r o m the b ü r d e n o f h a v i n g l o e m b o d y all thc contradictory strains s i m u l i a n c o u s l y . T h e eonfiiet b c t w c e n civic a n d p r i v a t e interesi becomes evident t h r o u g h ihe l i n k i n g o f the C a p i t o l i n c shc- w o l f , i h c D e a R o m a , a n d the bier in o n e rclief unit w i t h B r u t u s . O n e critic h a s regisiercd with irriiaiion that the D c a R o m a is not directed t o w a r d s thc r o o m
FROM THE THEATR1CAL TO THE AESTHETIC HERO mithin tlic picturc b u t rather l o w a r d s thc viewer.1 5 T h l S criticism c a n be jusiified o n l y i f o n e conceivcs o f t h i s s t a t u c as a m e r c 'acccssoirc', as a m c a n s o f
giving thc r ö o m the a s p c c l o f a R o m a n intcrior. If, h o w c v e r , o n e considers i h a i D a v i d was not intcrested in a u t h e n t i c a l l y rendcring thc i m a g c o f R o m a n h o u s e idols but w a s a i m i n g rather at m a n i f c s i i n g conflicting forecs, it then b e c o m e s f l e a r ihat i h r o r i c n u i i o n o f i h c D e a R o m a t o w a r d s (he viewer is p a r i o f i h r significaiion proecss. W h e r e a s B c r l h ä e m y had to e m b o d y all conflicting forecs,
ifnitus is freed f i o m (Iiis task because thc i n d i v i d u a l Clements ol" i h c intcrior lake o n m c a n i n g . T h e s a m c critic also took o b j e c i i o n to thc choicc o f the seene o f a c t i o n ; since, as he k n e w f r o m a m i q u e c x a m p l e s , burials in republican R o m c took place o u t s i d c t h e city walls, it w o u l d h a v e been i n c o n c e i v a b l e that t h c sons w o u l d be b r p u g h l back to iheir fathcr's house.
Prccisclv ihis c h o i c c o f the seene proves h o w Hille thc d o c u m e n t a r y d e s c r i p l i o n o f a n historical event m a t t e r e d to D a v i d . Ii was rather its pictorial mise-en-sdne that intcrested h i m . H e sclccted thc m o m r n i after (he e x e c u t i o n since hc w a s fully c o n s c i o u s o f the capabilities o f h i s m e d i u m and k n e w that ihc m o m e n t o f thc greatest e m o t i o n a l tension ( w h i c h was thc o n e chosen b y ü c r i h c l c m y in his d c p i c i i o n o f thc confiiet o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g ) a c t u a l l y turns o m to be i h c least picturesque. A s s o o n as p a i n t i n g gives p e r m a n e n c e to the statc o f highcsi (cnsion, it a u t o r n a l i c a l l y w e a k e n s ihat State a n d risks rendcring ii iheatrical. O n thc o t h e r b a n d , thc decision t o d e p i e t the c o n t c m p l a t i o n o f the conscquenccs o f a n i r r c v o c a b l c decision represents a clcar recognition o f t h c limiis o f thc pictorial m e d i u m , since it leaves thc u n d c p i c i a b l e to t h c
i m a g i n a i i o n o f ihc viewer. T h c Iransposition o f thc greatest e m o t i o n s to the secondary c h a r a c i c r s is s i m i l a r l y e x p l a i n a b l c : it frecs thc protagonist f r o m h a v i n g to express p a i n o v e r the loss o f h i s c h i l d r e n . T h c w o m e n entircly g i v e in 10 ihcir e m o t i o n s , thus p r o v i d i n g a c o n t r a s i to B r u t u s ' i m m o b i l i t y .
T h e n o v c l t y o f D a v i d ' s p r o c e d u r e was recognized b y all thc critics, including ihc a e a d e m i c ones. S o m c critics g r a s p e d , m o r c o v e r , that the produetton o f s i g n i f i c a n i m e a n i n g in this p a i n t i n g resuked f r o m the contrasi a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f pictorial m c a n s . W h c r e the p s y c h o l o g i z i n g 'sujets rragiques' had failcd in a c t u a l i z i n g the m o r a l themes w h i c h h a d g r o w n u n f a m i l i a r , D a v i d ' s strategy s u c c c c d e d .
Pour apprecier les beautes s u b l i m e s d e cette c o m p o s i t i o n , il faut sc
iransportcr a u i c m p s o ü R o m e faisait consisier sa liberic* d a n s la rudessc d e ses m o c u r s ; au t e m p s o d les p r e t e n d u s c i t o y e n s nc detronoient les R o i s q u e p o u r regner e u x - m e m e s : a u t e m p s o ü les s e n t i m c n l s de la n a t u r c cedaieni a l ' a r d c n t c a m b i l i o n : au t e m p s o ü un f a n t ö m e republicain consolait 1c P e u p l c d e s t y r a n n i c s d e ses c o n s u l s
a critic c l a i m s , refuling in the n a m c o f enltghtened ' n a t u r e ' R o m a n m o r a l i t y , as was c u s t o m a r y in thc t r a d i i i o n o f 'sujets tragiques'; yet hc continues:
originalitc d e projet, p u i s q u e le sujet principal sc trouve d a n s l'obscurite du tableau c o m m c p o u r m a r q u e r la d o u l e u r d ' u n ctre q u e la m o r g u c
r e p u b l i c a i n c nc s a u r a i t e m p e c h e r d ' e t r c pere. En effet, cette p r o d u e t t o n est plus d ' u n g r a n d Poetc q u e d ' u n P e i n i r c : et le reprochc q u e j ' a i e n t e n d u
PROM THE THEATRICAL TO TUE AESTHETIC HERÖ
faire d e v o i r d e u x t a b l e a u x d a n s cc sujet, il est j u s t e m e n t la cause de m u n adtniration. J e crois apercevoir J . B r u t u s , s'eloignant d e sa famille, mais n c sc r e p r o c h a n t p a s encore sa severite: je crois le v o i r balancer etitre la n a t u r e et P a m b i u o n .1 0
A n o i l i c r crilic nolcs: ' L ' i d e e d ' a v o i r place B r u t u s a b s o l u m r n t d a n s P o m b r c est un irait de genic q u i c o n t r i b u c ä rendre sa figure sinistre et ä faire valoir le g r o u p e interessant q u e forment la m e r e et les socurs d e ces rnalhcureuscs v i c t i m e s d e la severite paternelle.'1' F o r m a l m c a n s are understood b y thesc critics as significant c o m p o n e n t s ; w i t h the suppression o f the usual hierarchies w h i c h w e r e direcied at the hero, the s u b o r d i n a t e figures are d r a w n into view as carriers o f m e a n i n g in their o w n right.
M e a n i n g is constituted b y the interrelation o f formal e l e m c m s , a n d it r e m a i n s the v i e w e r ' s d u t y to interpret it. U n l i k c B e r t h e l e m y ' s painting, Brutus (Fernands i n t c r p r c t a t l o n , as o p p o s e d to s i m p l e reading."1 T i n s orientation tovvards a reflexive a p p r o p r i a t i o n w a s a l r e a d y d e i e r m i n e d by the decision to s h o w , not the event itsclf, but rather its personal consequences. I n other words, it was d e t e r m i n e d b y the choice o f place a n d time. It w a s also reinforced by the absence o f gcsiural a n d facial reaction o n the part o f the protagonist: o n l y the s u b o r d i n a t e figures are u n e q u i v o c a l i n their e m o t i o n s . B r u t u s ' fcelings must be reconstrueted o n the basis o f the viewer's o w n c x p c r i e n c c . A s stated a b o v e , che Organization o f the p i c t u r e coneeives o f the l i m i i s o f the m e d i u m w h i c h dictate Chat the representation o f extreme situations bc r e n o u n e e d as a produetive possibility to intensify that w h i c h is represented. T h i s m e a n s reaÜ2ing that the representation o f e x t r e m e passions d o c s not necessarily a r o u s e the viewer, and that reeeption a n d p r o d u e t i o n arc two diflerently struetured processes. T h e representation m a y , therefore, not rcly o n the m e r e p r e s e m a c i o n o f a g i v e n type o f passion, but instead m u s t s i r u e t u r e iis figures s o as to g i v e the viewer the possibility o f e n l i v e n i n g the events b y m e a n s o f Iiis o w n e m o t i o n s . R a d i c a l s u b j e c d v i z a i i o n dissolves the traditional c o n e e p t i o n o f vhistory painting'. T h e r e exists a p r o t o t y p e for s u c h a proecss: it is R e y n o l d s ' L'golino (plate 20).
R e y n o l d s s h o w s the figure o f U g o l i n o i n d e p e n d e n t o f D a n t e ' s Inferno-, for h i m U g o l i n o is m e r e l y the suflering father o f i n n o c e n t children c o n d e m n e d to s t a r v a t i o n . L i k e B r u t u s , U g o l i n o sits Ieft, motionless i n the f o r e g r o u n d , turned t o w a r d s the viewer, w h i l e at right a n agitated, c m o t i o n a l l y troubled g r o u p is formed by the C o u n t ' s sons. T h e choice o f the m o m e n t depicted is s i m i l a r : R e y n o l d s does n o t s h o w us i h c C o u n t ' s m a d n e s s w h i c h b e c a m e a favourite subjeet o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y painting, h e s h o w s the instant w h c r e U g o l i n o hears the bolting o f t h e tower's d o o r s a n d s u d d c n l y b e c o m e s a w a r e o f the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the Situation. H i s reaction is not a n o u t b u r s t . A s in D a n t e , he turns to stonc. T h e essential event takes place inside h i m . T h e r e is n o
interaction b e i w e e n U g o l i n o a n d his c h i l d r e n . T h e frightened glances and m o v e m e n t s o f the children reeeive n o a n s w e r f r o m the father. O n l y i h c v i e w e r k n o w s , like U g o l i n o h i m s c l f , what the o u t c o m e o f the event will be: the g a z e o f the C o u n t is directed at h i m . T h e interpreiation o f ihis p a i n t i n g - like that o f D a v i d ' s Brutus - neecssitates entering into the p s y c h e o f the protagonist, c o m p l e t i n g through the i m a g i n a t i o n that w h i c h is not represented.
PROM THE THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIO HF.RO Diderot h a d skciched in Iiis Paradoxe sur fe amedial (17G9) a similar
inclusion o f i h c v i e w e r w h i c h p r c s u p p o s c s i h e d i s ü n c t i o n bctween ihc process o f reccption and i h c o n c o f p r o d u c r i o n . A s w i t h D a v i d , so too Diderot
ackftowledges i h c a u t o n o m y of i h c w o r k o f a n , thus coneeiving o f it as a n cnliiy distincl f r o m nature. Passion o n stagc is n o s u d d e n o u t b u r s i , but rather the result o f the calculated usc o f theairical m e a n s . N o t i h c e x c i t e m e m b i n rather d i e d i s t a n c e o f the a c i o r is necessary for convincing aciing. O n l y a radical Separation o f thr m c a n s o f p r o d u c l i o n from reeeption cnables i h c spectator 10 bc m o v e d ; o n l y stylization aecording to i h c c o n d i t i o n s o f i h c m e d i u m guarantecs v c r i s i m i l i i u d c a n d persuasive p o w e r .1 8 B y l i m i l i n g w h a i is represenied, the Imagination o f the reeipient is lefi free l o e o m p l e t c it.
I V
In iis reference to i h c viewcr, the c o n t e x i i n w h i c h d i e l a u e r v i e w s rhe picturc becomes an i m p o r l a n l d e m e n t in its i n t c r p r e t a i i o n . F r o m D a v i d ' s letters a n d the rcactions o f the crities ai the S a l o n o f 1789 w e k n o w that the p a i n t i n g was not i n i c n d e d as a political manifesto, nor w a s il u n d e r s t o o d as s u c h at the l i m e o f iis iirst a p p e a r a n c e .2 0 A s with d i e 'sujelS i r a g i q u c s ' , inicrest w a s directed at ihc inner conflict o f B r u t u s , a n d the m o r a l w a s c x p c r i c n c c d as 'atroce', i.e.
beyond one's o w n experience. T h e p a i n t i n g w a s understood as the perfect rcpreseniaiion o f i h c h c r o as v i c i i m , not as a glorificaiion o f r e p u b l i c a n virtue.
In i h c course o f the R e v o l u t i o n - siarting w i i h i h c success o f V o l t a i r c ' s d r a m a
m 1790 - i h c R o m a n consul b e c a m e a positive figure, at firsi as a decidcd defender o f the ' p a i r i c ' , laier as a n exatnple o f a dedicated fightcr againsl royalisi m a c h i n a t i o n s . I n ihis context i h c e v a l u a ü o n o f ihc protagonist o f D a v i d ' s piciure changes. A criticism o f 1791 helps to d e m o n s t r a t c this change:
B r u t u s , ta vertu tc c o u i e eher, m a i s IU d e v o i s cet e x e m p l c ü tes c o n c i i o y c n s . C o m m e il esi s o m b r e ! c o m m c il est accable de d o u l c u r ! A h ! voilä ses funeraillcs, f a m i l l c dcsolee, socurs sensibles, versez, verscz d e s torrens d e
larmes. R o m c v o u s plaint, m a i s R o m c faii inscrirc ccs m o t s sur 1c m a r b r e : A B r u t u s q u i saerifie ses cnfants la patrie reconnaissantc.2 1
T h e e v a l u a t i o n , even the u n d e r s i a n d i n g o f the conflict rcprcscntcd in the 'sujcis tragiques', d e p e n d s o n i h c rclcvancc o n e is p r e p a r e d to g i v e to i h c choice b e i w c e n eivic d u t y a n d private wishes. T o the Frcnch o f ihe 'ancicni regime' the p u b l i c d e m a n d m u s l h a v e a p p e a r e d s i r a n g e , cruel a n d i n c o m p r e - hensible, since they c o u l d not assign a n y c o r r e l a i i v c to the p u b l i c realm in iis political a n d social reality.2 2 A t best, the Frcnch c o u l d c o n c c i v c o f the p u b l i c d e m a n d as the faie w h i c h befalls the protagonist. I n the 'sujet i r a g i q u e ' i h c
absiraci conflict h a s a concreie, n a m c l y private, content: it is described as a struggle b e i w c e n ' n a t u r e ' a n d necessity a n d is represenied w i t h iis focus o n the psyche o f i h e protagonist; this focus c a n be based o n i h e v i e w e r ' s experience o f privaey. For such a n i n t c r p r e t a i i o n the process o f d e a l i n g w i t h the conflict is m o r e interesiing t h a n iis m o r a l inessage. W i t h the s c n t i m c n t a l i z a i i o n o f the hero the i n d i v i d u a l experience o f p r i v a e y t r i u m p h s o v e r the g c n c r a l d e n i a n d s
FROM THi: THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HERO
o f the public rcalm. B y brcaking a w a y f r o m c o n v c n . i o n s o f c o m p o s m o n , Dav.d resolved .he d i l e m m a of che 'Sujets t r a g i q u e s ^ in turning to a rad.cal
p r i v a ü z a t i o n of the s u b j e c T h a . is the rcason w h y h,s cru.cs wcrc ablc .o a prcdace his painting as a 5ucccSsful fulfilment o f . b e . m c n u o n s of Sujets r e nues'. O n l v .he R e v o l u t i o n replaced the a b s . r a c . not.on o f .he public rcalm w i t h .he concre.e one of 'patrie'. T h r o u g h th.S replacemcnt, the: » m f i c e o f the sons (which un.il theo h a d appeared mercly as a cruel act on .he p a r o B r u t u s ) appeared co .he viewer as a necessary d e c s. o n i n favour of .he
LeresB o f their fa.herland. T h i s decision w a s u n d c r s . a n d a b l e <o Viewers Od the basis of their own experience. In .he revolutionary context B r u . u s a c o n
egained i.s original grea.ness. W i t h a
Sense
for .he Situation d* « b g - m e n u o n e d critic visualized R o m e se.ung u p a m o n u m e n , om o n u m e n . w o u l d bear exac.ly <he s a m e m s c n p u o n as ^ a f e d to h church of Sain.e Gcnevieve w h i c h w a s turned m t o a Pantheon fo the
revolutionary heroes: ' A u x g r a n d s h o m m e s - la P a. n e rcconna.ssame . T h e re- evaluation o f .he public rcalm brings .he private sphere under suspicion for pro " d i n g a space for .he ar.icula.ion o f d i s s i d e n , w h i c h per « m e a n s coun.er-
c v o l u t i o n a r v ) in.eres.s. B r u . u s m u s . c o n d e m n his son for the benefit o f a p^ t i v e l v defined public r e a l n , T h e re-evaluation o f .he ^ £
d u r i n e the revolutionary period does no. m e a n . h a . the h e r o s r c l a n v m « suspended. A s with all the heroes o f the R e v o l u t i o n , so also .he a p p r e c . a t . o n o f B r u t u s r c m a i n s üed to the Situation T h e » t e | - « J f » *
circumstances Bru.us can bc seen as e u h e r a p . u a b l c p n v a t e «cum or an e x a m p l e for civic behaviour proves t h a . his a c o n no longer has .he permanent
^ Ö t f Ä d
. h a . D a v i din
his On.H of ^ M Je / W does no.give an authen.ic represen.a.ion of .he revolutionary mass, bu. a r e p r e s e n » - Vion of a gathering o f individuals w h o abs.ain fron, c o m p l e t e Submission W the
v o l o n t e generale ' W e can take this as a h i n , . h a , m ^ » ' H ^ painting the primarily i n d i v i d u a l i s . i c spirit o f the d a y has only superlicalK been covered up b v an ideology w h i c h puts the stress on commun.V).
W h e n m c a n i n g n o longer precedes .ho work o f a n bot « « « « ^ beholder through .he in.erpre.a.ion of the formal re a „onsh.ps, ,
ing becomes d e p e n d e n . u p o n the c h a n g i n g hjstoncal. s u u a t i o n . A s a react on .0 the political changes w h i c h h a d personally befallen htm .n the; fom>«
prosecu.ion and incarceration, D a v i d devtsed the c o n e e p , of an art w h e b sPta„,ls a b o v e circums.antial alterations. H i s earhes, » n s , d , , a u o n s of I Sabüus arritan, U combat ealre Us Romains et les Sabmes occurred in
when D a v i d ' s Position was endangered, his p o l m c a l World d.scred .cd and ariistic reputa.ion ques.ioned. W h e n , in 1799 the p a i n t m g was
h a d become head of che leading a.elier of Par.s a n d the locus of a g r o u p o students w h o collec.ed all his sayings a n d vcnera.ed them as
B e a u . y . B o . h the r e n u n d a t i o n of poli.ics a n d an enthus.asm for disinterested
PROM THE THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETTC HERO
bcauty arc m a n i f e s t a t i ö n s o f the p o s t - r e v o l ü t i o n a r y period a n d influence the painting w e a r c n o w 10 d i s c u s s . W i t h ihis p a i n t i n g (platc 2 1 ) D a v i d a t t e m p t s 10 determine anCw i h c social role o f a n . T h e clioicc o f Eherne is p a r t i c u l a r l y iiiicrcsiing, since it d e v i a t e s from t r a d i i i o n : iiistead o f the rape o f the S a b i n e w o m e n , D a v i d represents the S a b i n e H c r s i l i a s e p a r a i i n g che fighting R o m a n s and Sabines. T h e ariisi e x p l a i n c d in a Icaflet c o m p o s e d for (he visitors l o the rxhibition that i h r S a b i n e s , f u r i o u s a b o u t the afaduedon o f their d a u g h t e r s , had i n v a d e d K o i n e ihre« years laier co eake revenge. A violcnt batilc e n s u e d , dl! ilie w o m e n , b y d i e n m o i h c r s o f R o m a n c h i l d r e n , imerceded a n d enforced a reconciliation b c l w c e n their q u a r r c l l i n g fathers a n d h u s b a n d s . D a v i d isolaies a few ßgurcs f r o m t h e m a s s o f t h o s c i n v o l v e d i n the a c i i o n a n d places t h e m like a rclief as personifications o f c o n i r a d i c t o r y , confliccing intcrests before the background formed b y tlie o t h e r partieipants. T h e figures h a v e n o Space to act.
T h e y are connected in a r o w o n the surface a n d impress us lesa as active agents (liaii as pari o f a c o m p o s i c i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n i . O n e critic*1 c o m p ä r e d the piciurc with Poussin's Rape of the Sabine Women a n d remarked that w h o e v e r h a d seen Poussin's p a i n t i n g fcnew in w h a t m a n n e r the a b d u e t i o n m u s i h a v e taken place, whcreas D a v i d ' s p i c t u r e Icfi n o t h i n g ' d a n s i ' i m a g i n a t i o n que la tracc de quelques figures confuses'. T h e n o n - a c a d e m i c lay-out 1 m a k e s it difficult for critics judging on the basis o f traditional criteria to u n d e r s t a n d the work. F o r rxampic, o n e critic w a s p u z z l e d by the general at the righi w h o p u t s a w a y his sword, since he is 100 far a w a y to h a v e lieard Hcrsilia's w o r d s o f p c a c e . T h e critic expects a s e q u e n c e o f events; he l o o k s for cause a n d cficci, m a i n plot a n d subplot. D a v i d , h o w e v e r , s u s p e n d s the t i m e sequence a n d replaces it w i t h simultancity, so that the g e n e r a l ' s a c i i o n is not a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the a c t i o n in the foreground but r a t h e r an a t t r i b u t i v e pari. T h e s a m e is true for the o t h e r evidrnce o f r e c o n c i l i a i i o n s u c h as the gesture o f the C o m m a n d e r at the left, ordering the cessation o f bclligcrence, o r the actions o f the soldicrs in the ccnlrc, as they t h r o w their h e l m e t s u p in the air in a s h o w o f j o y Over che peacc agreement. Parallel 10 L c s s i n g ' s Laokoon chesis, D a v i d scems to h a v e
transfonned t e m p o r a l succession i n t o s i m u l t a n c i t y , thus accepting the specific limitations o f his m e d i u m .2 7
A s in the b a c k g r o u n d secnes, a c t i o n in the foreground is s u s p e n d e d . It is noi the ' m o m e n t h e u r e u x1 a t the c l i m a x o f a n action iliai is rcprcscntcd, b u t the permanently frozen s t a n c e o f the figures. Each m o v e o n the part o f
Romulus corresponds to a c o u n i c r p o i s e o f T a t i u s ' ; both figures m a i m a i n the equilibrium b y b a l a n c i n g the tension i n every detail. T h e figures are not really engaged in c o m b a t , tlicy m c r c l y pose:2 8 D a v i d h a s united single figures i n t o a group; none o f them p e r f o r m s i n d c p c n d e n c l y but a p p e a r s as an d e m e n t o f pictorial disposition. T h e artificiality o f this c o n f i g u r a t i o n is manifested b y t w o means: through b o r r o w i n g s a n d the u s c o f the n u d e . A l r c a d y the early critics
«night to find m o d e i s for t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s in the history o f arc: ' T a c i u s cxisie
»ur un candelabrc a n i i q u c ' , R o m u l u s w o u l d correspond co a 'guerrier tracc Sur un vase ctrusque', H e r s i l i a w o u l d bc 'imitee d ' a p r c s R a p h a e l . '2 9 It is a m a t t e r of indifference whether the identifications are correct in each p a r l i c u l a r case:
the procedure has been p r o p c r l y r e c o g n i z e d for w h a t it is. VVc h a v e here i n d e e d
^arepertory o f figures m a d e a v a i l a b l e to us t h r o u g h the history o f art w h i c h is
KKOM THE TIIKATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HKRO
s u b s c q u c m l y uscd in a c o n i e x i dilVcrcnt f r o m thc o r i g i n a l o n c . D a v i d himscir h a d dcscribcd this practicc o f b o r r o w i n g 10 his s t u d c n t s as central io hi$
purposc. I n so d o i n g hc d i s t i n g u i s h e d v a r i o u s forms o f b o r r o w i n g (of an entire c o m p o s i t i o n , o f a g c s i u r c , o f a ligurc t y p e ) a n d j u s t i f i e d thc p r o c e d u r e with an I l l u s i o n to thc aiicicnis, w h o h a d p l a c e d greater v a l u c o n t h e perfecting o f a n through the i m p r o v e m e n t o f thc k n o w n rather t h a n o n t h c i n v e n t i o n o f new n o i i o n s .3 0 D a v i d describes thc p r o c e d u r e as a c o n s c i o u s stylistic choicc, a transilion from R o m a n to G r c c k a n . H e is m o r e intcrested in creating ;i work o f a n following thc m o d c l o f the ancients i h a n in d e p i c t i n g a n event. W i t h thc periodization o f a n t i q u e a n a n d the o u t l i n i n g o f its e v o l u t i o n the old topos of i m i t a t i o n o f antiquity h e c a m e s h a k y a n d w a s s u p p l a n t c d b y the necessity to select o n e particular period for a m o d e l . A l r c a d y in 1788 Q u a t r c m c r e de Q u i n c y had recognized the p r o b l c m a n d d e m a n d c d that w h o e v e r wanted to M u t e A n t i q u i t y should possess solid a n d precise k n o w l c d g e o f hisiory, in o r d e r to be a b l c to choosc as his m o d e l a n e p o c h o f perfection rather than onc o f d e c a y .3 1 D a v i d justified his p r o c e d u r e in s i m i l a r f a s h i o n : hc w a n t e d to rciurn 10 thc sourecs o f a n , its pure Greek form. L i k c thc G r c c k s tliemselvcs, David w a n t e d to use n u d e figures a n d u n h a r n e s s e d horses i n his p a i n t i n g . T h e nudity u f the ligurcs was i n t e n d c d to a m a z e t h c v i e w e r a n d render thc picturc
rccognizable as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s c v c r a l w o r k s o f a n . A s k c d b y a n 'amatcur' a b o u t the n u d i t y o f thc figures, a n 'clevc' a n s w e r s that n a k e d figures, appear on a n t i q u e m c d a l s a n d basrcliefs. T h c ' a m a t c u r ' agrecs, n o t i n g , h o w e v e r , an i m p o n a n t diffcrcncc: ' E n cfTei, ils s o n t reprc*scntes n u s , m a i s isolcmmcnt ei n o n p a s cn action.'3 2 D a v i d d o c s not i n t r o d u c c his figures in o r d e r 10 creaic a c o m i n u i t y o f a c t i o n , b u i rather in order precisely to d i s m i s s thc action through aesthetie stylization. H c r e m o v e s all rcfcrcnccs to a progressive scqucncc. H c was not intcrested in thc criticisms r e g a r d i n g t h c a b s e n c e o f thc signs o f a violent battle nor w a s hc b o l h c r c d b y thc d e m a n d for a m o r c precise localization o f thc e v e n t . "
D a v i d transforms thc historical event i n i o a n aesthetie presence and a u e m p t s to convey gencral a n d p e r m a n e m v a l i d i t y to the u n i q u e b y m c a n s o f siylizing c a c h action. T h c p a i n t i n g m u s t therefore be necessarily u n d c r s i o o d as a construetion. ' O n peut considerer cc n o u v e l o u v r a g c d e D a v i d p l u t ö i c o m m e u n cadre d a n s lequcl il a renferme u n c m a g n i f i q u e collection d e supremes tablcaux a u e c o m m e un tablcau q u i m e r i i c d ' e i r e p l a c e p a r m i les chefs- d ' o e u v r e s . A c t i n g figures are i r a n s f b r m c d i n t o w o r k s o f a n , hcrocs into m o n u m e n t s . U n Ü k c in thc p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h , R o m u l u s n o longcr holds the lance prepared to throw it, b u t b a l a n c e s ii o n his fingenips. H e presents both his lance a n d oversized s h i c l d " as a t t r i b u t e s r a t h e r t h a n as w e a p o n s . Instcad o f being depicted directly, thc event b e c o m e s restruetured i n t o a static image a e c o r d i n g to thc possibilitics o f thc m e d i u m a n d i h c c x a m p l c s o f a n tradition.
T h a t is w h y T a t i u s a n d R o m u l u s a p p e a r m o r c restricted in their i m p e t u s than they w o u l d bc c o u l d their a t t i t u d e b e a i t r i b u t e d to H e r s i l i a ' s intcrecssion. O n thc other b a n d V i n c e n t , D a v i d ' s i m m e d i a t e predecessor i n thc d e p i c t i o n ol this event, rcally d o c s s h o w a m o m e n t o f t h c b a t t l e ( p l a t c 22). T h c b c h o l d c r cannot bc at all sure i h a i Hersilia's a t t e m p t at r e c o n c i l i a t i o n will succccd.
E v e n m o r c than in thc Brutus D a v i d d i s t a n e c s h i m s c l f f r o m r e c e m tradition 130
PROM THE THEATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIO HERO
ihroiigh thc reflection o n history a n d ihe possibilities inirinsic to his m e d i u m . H e in läci decries a s ' t h e a i r i c a P a n d ' g r i m a c i n g ' Iiis o w n carly solutions. T h c painier thus f m d s in B r u t u s e l e m e n i s o f a n a r r a ü v e strueture w h i c h c o n t r a d i c t a definition o f pictorial m e a n s in Lcssing's terms, since with thc entry o f thc lictors a preciSe m o m c n i in l i m c is g l v c n , whercas in thc Sabines the l i m c sequciicc is iransformcd i n i o aesthetk: prcscncc. VVc would arguc that D a v i d' s emphasis o n tKc a c s i h e t i c c h a r a c t e r is a result ol' his a c q u a i n t a n c e with VViiickelmaiin's writings. T h c l a u e r h a d pointed out in his Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums, p u b l i s h c d in 1 764, t h a i expressivily detracts from b c a u t y a n d [hat 'der Begriff einer h o h e n S c h ö n h e i t nicht anders erzeugt werden ( k ö n n e ) als in einer stillen und von allen einzelnen Bildungen abgerufenen B e t r a c h t u n g der Seele.'17 W i n c k e l m a n n puts forvvard thc coneept of the m i n i m i z a t i o n o f expressivity for thc sake o f b e a u t y . H e o p p o s e d his thesis to that o f L e b r u n' s Expression des passions. I n d c e d W i n c k e l m a n n accused L e b r u n not o n l y o f depiciing the most e x t r e m e degrec o f passion, but also o f c s c a l a t i n g passion to the extent of ' R a s e r e y ' . Instead o f l i m i t i n g itself to depiciing thc particular, a n should represent the universal in its typical form untroublcd b y passions.
W i n c k e l m a n n praised thc G r e e k artisis for their abiHty to separate physical and psychic sensations from corporeal expression, a n d to leave il to the imagination o f the v i e w e r to s u p p l y the inner emotions o f the subject o f representation. T h i s is t h c gist o f thc following passage:
A u s s e r d e m ist die Siille u n d die R u h e im Menschen und bei T i e r e n d e r Z u s t a n d , welcher uns fähig m a c h t , die wahre Beschaffenheil und
Eigenschaften zu u n t e r s u c h e n u n d zu erkennen, so wie m a n d e n G r u n d der Flüsse und des M e e r e s n u r entdeckt, w e n n das W a s s e r still u n d unbewegt ist; u n d folglich k a n n a u c h d i e K u n s t n u r in der Stille d a s eigentliche Wesen derselben a u s d r ü c k e n .3 8
T h e paragraph j u s t q u o t e d s h o w s thc realization of the dialectics o f i n n e r feclings a n d corporeal expressions even m o r e clearly ihan the f a m o u s lormulation of 'stille E i n f a l l u n d edle Grosse'.3 9
I n the rejeciion o f his o w n early w o r k s u n d e r the reproach o f ' i h e a t r i c a l i t y ' , David recognized the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f g i v i n g a specific expression to a specific passion. O n l y s t y h z a t i o n a e c o r d i n g to the classical model is c a p a b l c o f conveying to the figures that u n i v e r s a l i s w h i c h renders ihem acccssible to i h c imagination o f the v i e w e r . B y t r a n s p o s i n g the active figures i n t o aesthetie calmncss he opened these u p to the p u b l i c ' s emotions, ofFering a n unrestricted projeciion screen. T h u s he d e v e l o p e d a coneept o f h o w a n a u t o n o m o u s work o f art should be read. H o w m u c h h e was interested in this aspect b e c o m e s
evident from the presentation o f t h c p a i n t i n g . H e exhibiled the picture a p a r t from the Salon in a s p e c i a l o n e - p i c t u r e s h o w , a n d charged a n entrance fee. T h e procedure was so u n c o m m o n that D a v i d found himsclf competled to j u s i i f y it by means o f rcfcrcncc to a n a l o g o u s u n d e r t a k i n g s b y both Z e u x i s a n d B e n j a m i n West. O n l y thc e x h i b i t i o n , D a v i d c x p l a i n e d in a n a e c o m p a n y i n g text, can providc thc necessary financial m e a n s to c n a b l e h i m to creatc history p a i n t i n g s With thc i n d e p e n d e n c e s u i t a b l e to genius. A t the saine t i m e this f o r m o f prcseniation provides a r t w i t h the ability to fulfil its true v o c a t i o n : ' [ t h c
FKOM THE THLATRICAL TO THE AESTHETIC HKRO
p o p u l a c c ) s'cclairera sur les a n s . a u x q u c l s il n ' c s i pas si indifferent q u' o n allcctc d e le croire; ses lumicres s'aecroiironi, son gout sc formera. . . Exhibition is
[he m o d c l o f the social rolc o f a n : ii s h o u i d ensure revenue a n d recognition io the paintcr while concomitantly educating a p u b l i c w h i c h uniil i h e n , due m its social position, had n o access to works o f art. T h e intention is to educate
t o w a r d s a n , not to educate through a n . A u t o n o m o u s a n is thus c o m p l e i c d by m c a n s o f a coneept for its a d e q u a t e reeeption. T h e intensc d i a l o g u c between picturc and bcholder w h i c h a n a u t o n o m o u s work o f a n requircs neecssitates a form o f presentation w h i c h distinguishes itsclf b y the isolation o f the paiming froni the distractions of the Salon.
Q u c s t i o n i n g art's social rolc is typical for the p o s t - t h e r m i d o r i a n period. A e o m m i s s i o n of the institute to which D a v i d bclonged f o r m u l a i e d this problrm as a c o m p e t i t i o n question: ' Q u e l l e a etc et q u e l l e peut encore ctre l'influcnce de la p e i n t u r c sur les moeurs et le g o u v e r n e m e n t des pcuples?' O n e of the
c o n t r i b u t o r s , G e o r g e - M a r i e R a y m o n d ,1* solved the p r o b l c m in a fashion s i m i l a r to D a v i d ' s : he declared it was art's task to f o r m the p e o p l c ' s taste and it w a s for ihat rcason that a n was politically i m p o n a n t .
V I
T h e proecss describcd herc m a y be defined as the r c p l a c e m e n t o f an illusionistic coneeption of p a i m i n g b y a fictive one. T o s u m u p : for the
enlightened critics antique morality h a d g r o w n unintclligiblc since it w a s feit to b c n o longcr in a g r e e m e m with 'naturc'. T h e u n f a m i l i a r a n t i q u e morality could o n l y be shown in an interesting w a y if o n e concentrated o n the inner slrugglcs of the proiagonisi, ihus psychologizing the subject. B e r t h c l c m y had u n d e r t a k e n the a i i e m p t of such a n a c t u a l i z a u o n , yet he tried to represent the inner conflict as action, thus tnaking Iiis p a i n t i n g theatrical. D a v i d hat!
grasped ihat inner c o m m o i i o n m a y b c c o n v i n c i n g l y represented o n l y through the r c d u c i i o n o f physical expression a n d ihat therefore it had to rely o n the i m a g i n a t i o n of the viewer for c o m p l c t i o n . For that p u r p o s c the break with Convention w a s of service 10 h i m , as it foreed the viewer o f Brutus 10 intcrprei the picturc, instead of merely rcading it. T h e viewer thus turns fron» an unsolicited witness into a n active partieipant in the p r o d u e t i o n of mcaning.
w h i l e at the s a m e limc the rolc o f i h c depicted figurcs is redueed from that of active a g c n i s to that o f Clements o f the totality o f the picturc. While
B e r t h c l c m y had s h o w n the ciimax o f a n action, D a v i d s h o w s the reflection of a n action not depicted. ihus excluding almost all narrative Clements, i c t a r e m a i n d e r o f r u d i m e n t a r y
time
strueture is m a i n t a i n e d in the sclectcd m o m c n i o f the entrance o f the lictors which serves as the o c c a s i o n for the m e d i t a t i o n on the sons' d c a t h . A n additional vesiigc o f action is to bc f o u n d in the emotional outburst of i h c w o m e n .I n the Sabine Women D a v i d pushes this idea even further a n d completcly rcplaccs action by aesihetic presenec. T h e ligures are frozen i n t o works o f art- T h e beholder has to bcar in m i n d W i n c k e l m a n n ' s coneept of the Separation of inner sensalions and outcr expression in order to c n l i v e n the figures on the
F R O M T H E T H E A T R I C A L T O T H E A F . S T H E T I C H E R O
basis o f che v i e w e r ' s p e r s o n a l experience. A s distinct from the figure o f B r u t u s , w h o c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a positive o r negative e x a m p l e , d e p e n d i n g o n the circumstances, the Sabine Warnen figures n o longer possess a specific content but are instead p o t e n t i a l l y accessible to the m o s t varied interpretations; because iheir artificiality, they m a y s i m p l y b e taken as e x a m p l e s o f fine a n . T h e renunciation o f a specific content is a result o f the privatization o f the Interpretation o f w o r k s o f art w h i c h discards politics as possible subjeet matter.4 3 U n l i k e B e r t h e l e m y , w h o h a d tried to represent a specific conflict or at least the intrinsic d i l e m m a o f a certain m o r a l i t y , a n d even unlike his o w n Brutus, w h e r e the reflection c o n c e r n i n g a given decision h a d been t h e m a t i z e d , in the Sabine Warnen D a v i d g a v e u p all c l ä i m to a c o m m o n m o r a l d e n o m i n a t o r and established t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f the picture in an aesthetic m a n n e r . H i s undertaking characterizes a Situation in w h i c h moral portents c a n n o longer be criven a single specific m e a n i n g a n d in w h i c h , therefore, aestheticism is to be gräsped as the m e a n s o f a c t u a ü z i n g the i n d i v i d u a l experience o f the bcholder.
Stefan G e r m e r a n d H u b e r t u s K o h l e Untversity of Bonn
N O T E S
Union is a c k n o w l c d g e d from M o n i k a G r ü i i h e r g - D r o e g c and Stephen Shearier.
Assistance in trans
1 J . - J . Rousseau, Oeuvres Completes, vol. I V , Paris.
I9C9 (Pleiade), p. 250.
2 Cf. J . H a b e r m a s , Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit.
Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft, D a r m s t a d t / N e u w i e d , 14/1983: cf. also Habermas, ' D i e klassische Lehre von der Politik in ihrem V e r h ä l t n i s z u r Sozialphilosophie' in Theorie und Praxis, Frankfurt, 3/1982, pp. 48ff; R . Koselleck, Kritik und Krise. Eine Studie zur
Pathogenese der bürgerlichen Well, Frankfurt, 3/1979.
3 Cf. R . Koselleck, ' " H i s t o r i a m a g i s t r a v i t a c " . Ober die A u f l ö s u n g des T o p o s i m H o r i z o n t neuzeitlich bewegter Geschichte', in Koselleck.
Vergangene Zukunft, Frankfurt, 3/1984, pp. 38ff.
4 Archives Nationales o ' 1925 B1 2; quoted in G . Sprigath, ' T h e m e n aus d e r G e s c h i c h t e der römischen R e p u b l i k in der französischen Malerei des 18. J h d t s . - ein Beitrag z u r I k o n o g r a p h i e des
18. J h d t s . ' , dissertation M u n i c h , 1968, p. 133;
Sprigath has published a n u m b e r o f sourecs related to our subjeet.
5 E.g. Brenet's Morl du DuCuesclin. T h e description in the livret is based on V i l l a r e t ' s Histoire de la brance depuis l'etablissement de la monarchie jusqu'au ügne de Louis XIV, vol. X I , Paris, 1763, p p . 55ff.
Cf. also M , S a n d o z , ' N i c o l a s - G u y de Brenet.
Peintre d'histoire', in BSHAF, 1960; Paris, 1961, pp. 33fT.
6 Sprigath, op. cit. ( n o t e 4 ) , p. 154.
7 Ibid., p. 326.
8 Cf. T . C r o w , ' T h e O a t h o f the H o r a t i i in 1785 - Painting and P r e - R e v o l u t i o n a r y R a d i c a l i s m in
France', in Art History. 1/1978, pp. 424 ff;
especially pp. 431 f.
9 T . Puttfarken. ' D a v i d ' s Brutus and the T h e o r i e s ol Pictorial U n i t y in France', in Art History, 3/1981, p p . 291fr.
10 M . - A . Laugier, Moniere de bien juger les ouvrages de peinture, 1771. reprint G e n e v a , 1972, p. 84: ' Q u c se propose la peinture? sinon de nous donner une representation de la chose assez vraisemblable p o u r q u e Tesprit se prenne a u piege d o n n e dans l'illusion & croil voir la rcalilc m e m c . ' 11 D . Diderot. Salons, vol. I, O x f o r d , 1957, pp.
240ff., p. 241: 'Et ce vide enorme qui separe Ulysse de la scene et qui rclcguc ä une distance choquante? II c o u p e la composition e n d e u x parties dont on ferait deux tableaux distinets:
l'une ä conserver precieusement; l'autre ä jeter au feu car eile est d c t e s t a b l c '
12 J . D a v i d , Le Peintre Louis David, 1748-1825.
Souvenirs et Doaiments Ine'dits, Paris, 1880, p. 655.
13 T h i s has been shown by Puttfarken (sec note 9).
14 F u n d a m e n t a l for the notion of fiction: A . C . Q u a t r e m e r e de Q u i n c y , Essai sur la nature, le but et les inoyens de l'imitation dans les beaux-arts, Paris, I 8 2 3 f e . g . p. 103.
15 Sprigath, o p . cit. (note 4). p. 358.
16 Ibid., p. 346.
17 Ibid., p. 347.
18 N . Bryson, Word and Image. French Painting of the Ancien Regime, L o n d o n / N e w Y o r k , 1981, p. 238.
19 D . Diderot, 'Paradoxe sur le comedien', in Oeuvres Esthetiques (ed. Verniere), Paris, 1959,
