The Forest as a

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The Forest as a

Spatial Element in Rural andUrban Landscape

BRIAN HACKETT

Although man has always battled against the forest in order to clear land for agriculture and to provide him with fuel and building materials, or indeed to clear away the forest in order that it should not be a secretive position for his enemies , we, in the 20th century, take a more knowledgeable attitude to forests. The indus- trialist realises their importance as a raw material; the ecologist understands their place in a healthy world landscape; and the general public appreciates their recreational and amenity value. The forester's task now enhances the three objectives inherent in my refeiences. I, however, speak for the landscape planner who is not only also concerned with the three objectives, but considers how the forest lands are related to all the other uses of the landscape, such as agriculture, water supply, habitation and recreation.

Statistics have been produced for most countries which give the area of forest compared with other forms of landscape. But there is very little information on the question whether the area of the closed landscape of the forest, in relation to the area of the open landscape, is right for the maintenance of the health of the whole environment of a country. For example, in my country - England - most of the länd is basically forest land, apart from the exposed mountains and uplands and some coastal strips. By the end of the first World War, the forest cover had been drastically reduced over the centuries, and then followed the new plantings of the Forestry Commission and as a result of financial inducements to private landowners. We now ask the question whether there is sufficient tree cover of a country which Nature considered should be covered with forests. Yet there has been much public resistance to the new plantings on areas which have become accepted as naturally open in the memory of the recent population. I would claim that if Governments would give landscape planning its rigthful place as the basis of all landscape change, people would understand the real value of types of landscape and their relation one to the other. Perhaps I should explain what is involved in landscape planning. Briefly, landscape planning practice must start with the anal- ysis of landscape, and an understanding and acceptance of the principles which govern the making of changes which respect its health and appearance. This must be followed at the planning stage by the idea of evolution of the landscape as opposed to a new cosmetic imposed on the landscape, by the assimilation of the plan into the ecology and type of landscape of the area, and by the need to consider growth, production and maintenance as integral parts of the plan. If we are consi-

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dering the forest as an element in the arrangement of the spaces of a country, and surely this can only mean the landscape, there has always been the easy decision to give the difficult areas to afforestation. For example, in England the small financial return by present day standards from agriculture on the exposed uplands is a temptation to the farmers to sell to some afforestation body, or the low fertility status of some sandy soil areas for agriculture again is a temptation f or change to afforestation with species able to thrive in these conditions. These changes may well be the right ones, but they raise the question whether restricting the forests to the less favourable agricultural areas is the right policy for the health of the landscape for a long time into the future. Maybe, we should be prepared to accept a slightly lower standard of living as measured in sophisticated urban terms from either a reduced agricultural output or a more expensive and intensive agricultural policy - in order to introduce a long term rotational plan to change intensively- used agricultural areas back to their original forest cover for at least one climax period. The objectives of landscape planning, working without exact knowledge of the long term future of man-made landscape changes, favour a closer relationship between land uses and the basic natural landscape.

Under the present situation of land use decisions. based upon the needs of the moment, what opinions can the landscape planner give about the location of forests in the landscape? Clearly, the first objective is the conservation of the natural forests. The situation in this respect is very different as between one country and another. In the Scandinavian countries and some tropical countries, there remain vast areas of natural forest. With the growing concern for the biological health of the World and the example of many countries who denuded their lands of forests, there should be a very careful study of a pattern for future openings into the forest and for ways of felling the timber reserves which do not interfere with the health of the forest. In England and many other developed countries, the few areas which can be considered natural forest should be rigidly conserved, not only for their intrinsic interest, but as «incubators» for maintaining the native flora and fauna from which new genera tions can spring for populating other areas.

Generally speaking, the richer kinds of forest (i. e. in the variety and range of the flora and fauna) occupied the lowlands and particularly the valley floors where the better soils lie and the ground water supply is more continuous, while the uplands on the valley sides and above the valleys were either exposed or covered with coniferous or deciduous forests, both limited in the variety and range of the flora and fauna and often in density. But when man came along and changed the landscape, the closed landscape of the valleys became open spaces, and in some countries the valley sides and uplands have now become more densely covered with forest as a result of afforestation practices and new techniques; in· England, the earliest agricultural areas were on the uplands until conditions were made safer in the lowlands. If both the agricultural and afforestation practices are based upon the principle of maintaining natural fertility, this reversal, as it nearly is in some cases, of the open and less dense areas from the uplands to • the lowlands, is an

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acceptable development if man accepts the responsibility of taking over the role of the dominant in the landscape from the trees of the high forest and ·obeys . ecological principles. From the point of view of appearance, the open landscape in the vaHeys, contrasted with the more fully: closed landscape now seen on many uplands, high- lights the -contrast and gives a large-scale variety to the scene, replacing the intimate variety in the dosedlandscape of the lowland deciduous forest with the lesser intimate variety in the more open landscape of the uplands.

In landscape planning, we have to give an opinion on the kind of forests that are to be newly planted or replanted. This issue has arisen as a result of the short term economic importance of coniferous trees in comparison with deciduous trees.

In countries where conifers are frequent as native vegetation, this is not a very emotional- issue. But in countries where conifers have a very small place in the native vegetation, vigorous battles are fought over proposals to plant conifers. The landscape planner must, however, take a balanced view, but always on the understanding that man accepts the responsibility of taking over the role of the dominant in an ecological sense.

When the upland areas in England were almost completely cleared of the tree and shrub cover, .which was often quite .. thin, sheep grazing controlled the vegetation so that only grass species and heather were present; this resulted in a carpet with -limited .. colour and textural variation. Many people oppose the planting of conifers on_ these areas without realising first, that there would be some kind of forest if Nature had been left alone, and second, that one green carpet is only being replaced with another. This opposition has some justification if the conifer species do not reflect the variations in the natural base of the landscape which led to variation in -the cover of the controlled vegetation, i. e. some areas restricted to grass species or other areas predominantly heathers. lf the layout of the forest is such that the boundaries of the forest edge and the alignment of the rides and firebreaks do not accord with natural boundaries and with the topography, the forester must expect opposition, because of the poor visual result.

lt is at the edge of the forest that one realises how the forest can give a three- dimensional appearance over and above that contributed by the topography. Partic- ularly, -when forest planting is at a small scale, does one realise the importance of this third dimension, as for example with the Amsterdam Forest Park. I am sure most foresters are aware of the research work on the size of clearings in a forest in relation to the most favourable microclimate (The Climate near the Ground, by R. GEIGER, Oxford University Press, 1965). I, myself, directed an investigation in 1973 into the size, shape, character and boundaries of spaces in the landscape with reference

to

optimum favourable environmental conditions, which ranged wider than merely clearings in a forest, but the suspidon with which landscape research is regarded by research financing bodies prevented more than one year's work being undertaken.

Small-scale afforestation in the form of small woodlands and shelter belts is also important in creating spaces in the landscape and thus avoiding the monotony of

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large unbroken areas of agriculture, and at the same time contributing to improved microclimates and the ecological health of the landscape. The demands of the modern farmer for larger spaces in which he can make full use of his machines have to be appreciated, but landscape planning practice can only accept them if the new and larger spaces are also surrounded by new belts of trees. There is a technical difficulty with this proposal because it would in many cases involve agree- ment by two adjoining landowners, require financial inducement from the regional or national government, and probably need active participation by a central forestry organisation, and these organisations do not like to undertake projects which are likely to be uneconomic in commercial forestry terms because of their small area and distribution.

The growing interest in forests as a recreational resource · means the creation of spaces in forests for picnic areas, car parks, camping and other uses associated with recreation. These spaces need to be planned in relation to the environmental conditions, and also with regard to a plan of interesting routes through the forest.

There is also the problem of fire risk to be considered which suggests that the tree species around the spaces should be those best able to resist conflagration, and consideration should also be given to their contribution to the appearance of the recreational area.

I referred to the Amsterdam Forest Park, and also draw attention to the woods outside West Berlin, as examples not only of a valuable amenity, but as a type of landscape which can identify an urban area in comparison with the countryside around. There is interest currently in the possibility of urban fringes, and rural areas between towns located close to one another, being used for afforestation rather than for agriculture. Such a proposal can benefit the climate of the urban areas and provide them with a greater landscape contrast than was given by the adjoining agricultural use. Moreover, agriculture close to urban areas is often under pressure from vandalism, invasion by city people, and housing and other urban land use needs.

I am sure that those who read this paper will have sensed that, in the context of landscape planning, forests are multipurpose and that the commercial objective is only one side of the essential part they play in a country's landscape resource.

This wider view of forestry suggests the increasing complexity of the education needed by a forester and also the need for forestry organisations to ensure that they include a range of experts to cover the multi-purposes of forests.

Summary

The forest in the 20th century is accepted as a multipurpose landscape - for industry, for its ecological contribution, and for its amenity value. The landscape planner is concerned with these aspects and also many other associated aspects.

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The paper draws attention to the removal of the natural forest cover in some countries, and to the attitude of the general public to new plantings, and explains how landscape planning principles require that proposals for types of landscape should be related to the natural conditions and to one another, as well as for economic and amenity purposes. The situation . regarding the location of new forests in England is described, and the point made that the valleys, once with a rich tree cover, are now open for agricultural purposes. Reference is made to the question whether coniferous or deciduous species should be planted on land once covered with deciduous species.

The edge of the forest, where the three-dimensional effect is seen, is discussed from the point of view of its appearance, together with the question of the size of spaces in the forest and their place in recreation. Reference is made to the contribution of woodlands to the creation of spaces in the agricultural landscapes. Finally, the possibility of using the land immediately around cities for forest belts is discussed.

Zusammenfassung

Der Wald als räumliches Element der offenen und urbanen Landschaft Der Wald des 20. Jahrhunderts ist zur Mehrzwecklandschaft geworden: Er dient wirtschaftlichen und ökologischen Zwecken sowie zur Erholung ; Mit diesen und vielen anderen damit verbundenen Aspekten beschäftigt sich der Raumplaner.

· Der Referent weist auf die in einigen Ländern verschwundene natürliche Bewal- dung und auf die Reaktion der Öffentlichkeit gegenüber Aufforstungen hin. Nach landschaftsplanerischen Grundsätzen müssen Vorschläge für Landschaftsgestaltung auf den natürlichen Gegebenheiten basieren, gegenseitig aufeinander abgestimmt sein · und auch die wirtschaftliche und erholungstechnische Zweckbestimmung be:- rücksichtigen. Die Lage hinsichtlich des Standortes von neuen Wäldern in England wird erläutert. Ehemals dichtbewaldete Täler stehen nun landwirtschaftlichen Zwek- ken offen. Die Frage wird aufgeworfen, ob Nadel- oder Laubhölzer auf früher mit Laubhölzern bestockten Standorten gepflanzt werden sollen.

Der Waldrand mit seiner dreidimensionalen Wirkung wird besprochen und die Frage nach der Größe der Lichtungen im Wald und ihrer Bedeutung für die Erho- lung erörtert. Ebenfalls zur Sprache kommt der Beitrag der Gehölze zur räum- lichen Unterteilung von landwirtschaftlichen Flächen. Schließlich werden die Mög- . lichkeiten besprochen, das Land in unmittelbarer Umgebung der Städte als Wald-

gürtel zu verwenden.

übers. Rosmarie Louis

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Resume

La foret, element spatial des paysages ruraux et urbains

Au 2oe siede, la foret est devenue un paysage a buts multiples: eeonomiques, eeologiques, reereatifs. L'amenagiste du paysage s'oeeupe de ees aspeets et d'une foule d'autres qui leurs sont associes.

Dans eertains pays, la eouverture boisee naturelle a disparu, le publie reagit faee aux nouveaux boisements: les projets d'amenagement du paysage doivent se baser sur les donnees naturelles, etre eo.ordonnes entre eux, tenant eompte tant des buts eeonomiques que reereatifs. L'auteur deerit la situation aetuelle eoneernant l'em- plaeement de nouvelles forets en Angleterre et releve que les vallees a l'origine richement boisees sont aujourd'hui oeeupees par l'agrieulture. La question de savoir s'il faut planter du resineux ou des feuillus sur les stations oeeupees ante- rieurement par la foret feuillue est diseutee.

L' expose traite des lisieres, avec leur aetion tri-dimensionnelle et diseute le pro- bleme de l'etendue des clairieres en foret et de leur importanee pour les loisirs. 11 se refere egalement au röle des boises dans la division spatiale des paysages agrieoles.

11 discute enfin les possibilites de ereer des eeintures vertes a proximite immediate des villes.

Trad. J.-F. Matter

Riassunto

L' elemento spaziale bosco nel paesaggio urbano e di campagna

Il bosco del 20° seeolo ha assunto moltepliei funzioni ( di tipo eeonomieo, eeo- logieo e ricreativo ). Il pianifieatore si oeeupa di questi e molti altri aspetti.

Il relatore aeeenna ai paesi ehe hanno perso la eopertura forestale naturale ed alla reazione dell'opinione pubbliea nei eonfronti dei rimboschimenti. Seeondo i principii della pianifieazione del territorio le proposte per la sistemazione del paesaggio devono basarsi sulle possibilita offerte dalla natura, devono essere eoordi- nate fra di loro e devono rispettare i fini eeonomiei ed anehe le modalita teeniche neeessarie all'adempimento della funzione ricreativa. Il relatore espone poi i eri- teri adottati in lnghilterra nella seelta dei siti destinati alla ereazione di nuovi boschi e pone la domanda a sapere se debbano essere piantate conifere piuttosto ehe lati- foglie laddove un tempo creseevano solo quest'ultime.

Vengono inoltre diseussi: l'influsso tridimensionale del margine del boseo, l'in- cisivita dei tagli sul valore ricreativo della foresta ed il contributo dato da alberi ed arbusti alla rottura dei grandi spazi agricoli. lnfine il relatore analizza le possibilita offerte <lalle aree circonvicine alle eitta per la ereazione di nuovi boschi.

Trad. R. Buffi