Mindfulness at Work and Its Relationship to Contextual Performance and Well-Being
Wissenschaftliche Arbeit zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades „ Bachelor of Science“ (B.Sc.) im Fach Psychologie
Fachbereich Psychologie der Universität Konstanz
vorgelegt von
Tina Rauch
Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Cornelia Niessen Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Sabine Sonnentag
Konstanz, den 31.5.2011
Konstanzer Online-Publikations-System (KOPS) URL: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-176105
Note
Note
This is an abridged version of my bachelor thesis “Mindfulness at Work and Its Relationship to Contextual Performance and Well-Being”. It contains the following sections:
- Acknowledgements - Abstract
- Contents - Introduction
- Model of Hypotheses - Discussion
- References
To receive the full version, please contact me via email: Tina.Rauch@uni-konstanz.de
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Cornelia Niessen for the supervision of my bachelor thesis. In particular, I appreciate her patience and flexibility with regard to
organizational and content-related issues. Furthermore, I thank my former mentor Prof. Dr.
Sabine Sonnentag for her continued interest in my progress and for being my second
reviewer. I further thank Dr. Ailleen M. Pidgeon for introducing mindfulness practice to me.
Finally, I thank Shirley Brown, Neil Roberts and Sascha Valewink who taught me English academic writing in a challenging and very humorous way.
Abstract
Abstract
The occurrence of mindfulness trainings in profit organisations is on the increase. However, mindfulness as a quality of consciousness has rarely been investigated in work settings or with work-related concepts. Thus, the present thesis examines mindfulness in relation to contextual performance and work-related well-being. Based on literature analyses I propose three hypotheses: Firstly, mindfulness is positively associated with helping and cooperating with others, mediated by empathy. Secondly, mindfulness has a negative relationship to strain. Thirdly, mindfulness is positively associated with work engagement. The first proposition implies that mindfulness plays a crucial role beyond task-orientated work- behavior. The latter propositions suggest that mindfulness is not only related to the
attenuation of detrimental effects of work stressors, but that it is also associated with positive and fulfilling work-related states of mind. Thus, the present work implies that a) mindfulness plays a crucial role in the work context that should be further investigated, b) trait
mindfulness can be considered as a variable in the process of personnel selection, and in particular c) that the integration of mindfulness trainings in work life is not only beneficial for profit-orientated corporations, but also for organizations and employees in other areas, in particular in the health service sector.
Contents
Contents
Acknowledgements
Note
Abstract
Contents
1. Introduction………...….………….….1
2. Theoretical Background………...……..…….…….3
2.1 Definitions of Mindfulness………...……..……...3
2.11 Mindfulness as a Quality of Consciousness………..……...…...3
2.12 Buddhist Definitions of Mindfulness………..…...…...4
2.13 Therapy-based Definitions………..…...…...5
2.14 Cognitive Models of Mindfulness………...…...6
2.141 The Cognitive Model of Mindfulness by Langer………..…...…...6
2.142 The Two Component Model of Mindfulness……….……..7
2.143 The Model of Collective Mindfulness……….…...8
2.2 Historical Background………...………...9
2.3 Self-Awareness………...…….……...11
2.4 Measurements………...…….……...13
2.41 The Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS)………...13
2.42 The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI)……….……...14
2.43 The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS)……….15
2.44 The Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)……….15
Table 1: Trait and state scales of Mindfulness………...17
Contents
3. Hypotheses………...20
Figure 1. Model of Hypotheses………..………...20
3.1 Contextual Performance……….…...21
3.11 Helping and Cooperating with others………..……….22
3.2 Well-Being……….…...25
3.21 Strain……….……...26
3.211 Appraisal Process of Events………...26
3.212 Perception and Development of Personal Resources………...28
3.214 Sensitivity of the Autonomous Nervous System………...30
3.214 Behavioral Choice………...32
3.22 Work Engagement………33
3.221 Vigor………...34
3.222 Dedication………...39
3.223 Absorption………..40
4. Discussion………..43
4.1 The Nature of Mindfulness………..43
4.2 Methodological Approaches……….44
4.3 Practical Implications………...46
References
Introduction
1. Introduction
Recently, work environment is determined by unpredictability and instability (Fries, 2010). Organizations constantly face challenges such as competition, technological and
informational change, globalization and cultural diversity (Fries, 2009; Marianetti & Passmore, 2010; Van den Heuvel, Demerouti, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2010). On the other hand, the
occurrence of mindfulness in the work context is increasing (Hunter & McCormick, 2008):
Fortune 500 companies, for instance Proctor and Gamble, offer mindfulness training for their employees (Caroll, 2007; CNNmoney, 2010). Highly successful managers such as Bill Ford Jr., chairman of Ford Motors, and Michael Rennie, managing partner of MC Kinsey, are committed practitioners of mindfulness (Caroll, 2007). Moreover, training facilities offer mindfulness practice such as the Bentley College for business (Ezarik, 2006) and Google University (Jordan, 2010). This raise questions about the role of mindfulness in the work context.
Mindfulness is defined as “enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or present reality” (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822), resulting in perceptions of internal and external events without distortions (Brown & Kasser, 2005). Such qualities can be important in various work settings, in particular in those, where life depends on detailed perceptions and mindful responses. Highly Reliable Organizations for instance, rely on faultless functioning and refer to air traffic control departments, hospital emergency units, and fire-fighting teams (Weick &
Sutcliffe, 2007). Moreover, mindfulness can play a crucial role in the work context of managers or teachers (Napoli, 2006). Both perform leading roles in which the performance and well-being of subordinates depend on the leader’s ability of taking responsibility and decision making that is shown to be influenced by mindfulness (Fiol & O’Connor, 2003). In addition, mindfulness can be beneficial in settings where interpersonal contact is required in general, for instance in the sales department, or in work teams. Non-biased perceptions might facilitate interactive processes which are often highly complex by involving linguistic components, as well as paralinguistic behavior, such as gesture (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000).
Introduction
Research on mindfulness has its origin in the 1970’s (Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000;
Rosenberg, 2004) and shows beneficial effects on clinical interventions, psychological outcomes, health, and well-being (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008; Jain et al, 2008).
Regarding the work context, the investigation of mindfulness as defined by Brown and Ryan (2003) has been intensified in recent years (cf. McCracken & Yang, 2008; cf. Williams,
Ciarrochi, & Deane, 2010). However, it is still underrepresented (Dane, 2010). Thus, research is often literature-based, or of exploratory nature (c.f. Dane, 2010; c.f. Hunter & McCormick, 2008;
c.f. Marianetti & Passmore, 2010). Concerning the relationship between mindfulness and performance, research focuses primarily on task performance (cf. Dane, 2010; cf. Shao &
Skarlicki, 2009). Only few studies associate mindfulness with other forms of performance such as citizenship behavior (cf. Giluk, 2010; cf. Roche & Haar, 2010). Regarding well-being at work, research targets the effects of mindfulness training on single, negative work-related outcomes, in particular stress perception and job burnout-predominantly in the health service sector (cf.
Cohen, Sawyer, & Miller, 2009; cf. Narayanan & Moynihan, 2006; cf. Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, &
Cordova, 2005). Results on the relationship between mindfulness and positive work-related concepts of well-being such as job satisfaction are still scarce (cf. Benoot, 2008, cf. Mackenzie, Poulin, Seidman-Carlson, 2006). The present work has three aims: Firstly, this thesis targets the relationship between mindfulness and helping and cooperation with others as a crucial
component of contextual performance. This represents a counterweight on the current focus on task performance in the research on mindfulness and work performance. Secondly, concerning well-being, the present work aims at the examination of the relationship between mindfulness and strain as a global negative work-related concept. Thirdly, in alignment with the upcoming positive psychology (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001), this paper also focuses on the association between mindfulness and work engagement.
Hypotheses
3. Hypotheses
The following section contains three hypotheses about the relation of mindfulness to contextual performance and to well-being at work. I propose that mindfulness is a) positively related to helping and cooperating with others, mediated by empathy, b) negatively related to strain, and c) that it has a positive relationship with work engagement. Figure 1 illustrates these hypotheses, which will then be outlined in detail.
Figure 1. Model of hypotheses Mindfulness
Contextual Performance
Well-Being Helping and
Cooperating with others
Strain
Work Engagement
Discussion
4. Discussion
In this section, the findings of the present thesis are summarized and briefly interpreted.
Then, content-related problems as well as methodological limitations are presented in alignment with their theoretical implications. Finally, practical implications are highlighted.
This bachelor thesis focussed on mindfulness as a quality of consciousness according to Brown & Ryan (2003) and its relation to contextual performance and well-being at work. Based on the reviewed literature, I propose three hypotheses. Firstly, mindfulness is positively
associated with helping and cooperating with others, mediated by empathy. Secondly,
mindfulness has a negative relationship to strain, and thirdly, mindfulness is positively associated with work engagement. These propositions have three implications: a) mindfulness plays a crucial role beyond task-orientated work-behavior b) mindfulness is associated with the attenuation of detrimental effects of work stressors and moreover c) mindfulness is related to positive and fulfilling work-related states of mind. Thus, this thesis contributes to research in the field of work and organizational psychology by highlighting mindfulness as an important
variable in the work context: So far, mindfulness has rarely been investigated regarding work- related concepts or directly within the work context (cf. Dane, 2010; cf. Shao & Skarlicki, 2009).
Hence, many studies cited in this thesis were conducted in different contexts such that the results had to be transferred to the work area.
4.1 The Nature of Mindfulness
There are many different definitions and conceptualizations of mindfulness (Brown et al., 2007a) based on different theoretical and practical backgrounds. Until today, there is no
consensus on a unique definition. An attempt by Bishop et al. (2004) to create a global
operational definition of mindfulness did not succeed (cf. Bischop et al., 2004; cf. Brown et al., 2004a). In alignment with the diversity of definitions is the heterogeneity of mindfulness measures. Currently, there are seven trait mindfulness scales. This raises question about the
Discussion
comparability and generalization of results. Although overlaps between the MAAS and other measures are highlighted in this thesis, basically, different scales do cover different
conceptualizations. Thus, there are two important implications for further research: firstly, to reach consensus about a unique definition and, secondly, the development and application of a uniform measure to guarantee the comparability of results and, in particular, to make
statements about causality in the long-term. A good candidate is the definition of mindfulness as
“enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or present reality” (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822). By highlighting the nature of mindfulness as a quality of consciousness (Brown et al., 2007a), the definition of Brown and Ryan is independent of any belief system, specific therapeutic interventions, or particular practice (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown & Ryan, 2004a).
Thus, it overlaps with all existing definitions, and a comparison of existing trait mindfulness measurements supports a global factor structure. In this broad sense, this definition can be applied to a variety of contexts (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Still, it might be questionable whether this definition is applicable to all clinical contexts and further research is necessary to target the validation of the MAAS for diverse clinical populations. With regard to the work context, the rather neutral definition by Brown & Ryan seems to be accurate. Concerning the application of a uniform measure, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) from Baer et al. (2006) is a good candidate, because it follows internal scale construction. However, it has only been
validated with student samples and further studies should target its validation in the work context. In contrast, the MAAS has been validated in the general, employed population (cf.
Brown & Ryan, 2003) and thus should be considered as a uniform measure in the work area.
4.2 Methodological Approaches
The utilization of mindfulness measures is a methodological issue that should be considered by the interpretation of the presented results: Mindfulness is inherently defined as a state, according to Brown and Ryan (2003). However, state scales are underrepresented in general and moreover, those that exist are barely applied (Brown & Cordon, 2009). For instance, there is only one study in which Brown and Ryan themselves use their state MAAS (cf. Brown &
Ryan, 2003). Thus, most results of this thesis refer to measured trait mindfulness.
Discussion
The application of state measurements is indicated in particular in studies in which mindfulness is investigated with other state-like concepts, which also refer to the immediate present such as work engagement. For instance, regarding dedication, clear associations were revealed between state mindfulness and positive affect (PANAS), while the relationship between the trait MAAS and positive affect is inconsistent (cf. Brown & Ryan, 2003; cf. Chambers et al., 2008).
Furthermore, mindfulness has not been investigated with state self-awareness yet. According to the theory of Duval and Wicklund (1972), objective self-awareness can result in the automatic comparison and discrepant self-evaluation. Mindfulness is thought to preclude automatic
cognitive processes and might act as a moderator in this process. Thus, the state MAAS could be applied to test this hypothesis. Finally, state measurements should be applied more in studies, which involve mindfulness training. In this way, the immediate effects of mindfulness can be revealed.
One further important limitation is the generalization of results in the cited research.
Many studies were conducted with student samples (cf. Beitel et al., 2005; cf. Brown & Ryan, 2003; cf. Gilbert & Walt, 2010; cf. Weinstein et al., 2009). Investigations in the work
context are often conducted in the health service sector (cf. McCracken & Yang, 2008; cf. Minor et al., 2006; cf. Mackenzie et al., 2006). More than questioning the generalization of results, the latter research also raises question why mindfulness trainings are not established in the health area yet.
The final and very important methodical issue is the prevalence of correlational design in the cited research. Although there are some experimental investigations and longitudinal studies (e.g. Weinstein et al., 2009; e.g. Williams et al, 2010), most of the cited surveys are of
correlational nature. This has an impact on the interpretation of the results and yields
implications for further research. In the following section, three affected domains are outlined:
Firstly, cautious is indicated regarding the interpretation of the proposed mediation effect of empathy on the relationship between mindfulness and helping and cooperating with others. The cited studies reveal correlations between mindfulness and empathy, but did not investigate their causal relation (cf. Beitel et al., 2005; cf. Modino et al., 2010; cf. Wachs & Cordova, 2007).
Thus, further research should examine the direction of action to support the mediation
hypothesis. Secondly, there is evidence that mindfulness is positively associated with vigor in the
Discussion
work engagement concept (cf. Kostanski, n.d.; Rosenszweig et al., 2003) by preventing depletion of self-regulating energy (Brown et al., 2007a; Leary et al., 2006). However, according to
Gailliot et al. (2007), attentional self-control relates to the depletion of energy and reduced persistence in tasks. Thus, experimental-designed studies should investigate the causal relationship between minfulness and vigor and the direction of action to shed light into this contradiction. Thirdly, there is a similar implication for emotions in the concept of personal resources within the strain hypothesis. According to the second part of the broaden-and-built theory, positive emotions can build personal resources over time (Fredrickson et al., 2008). My thesis shows that mindfulness can contribute to resource gain, since it has a positive association with emotions. However, the first part of the broaden-and-built theory states that emotions broaden attention (Fredrikson et al., 2008), in particular in the visual area (Fredrikson &
Branigan, 2005). This yields two questions for further investigations: firstly, whether there is a causal direction in the relation between mindfulness and emotions, and secondly, whether there exist a spiral gain relationship.
4.3 Practical Implications
By contributing to the understanding of the role of mindfulness in the work context, the findings of this thesis also suggest implications for the practice: The investigation of trait
mindfulness could be integrated in the process of personnel selection. Furthermore, organizations should support regular mindfulness practice at the work place and should moreover offer regular mindfulness trainings for the following reasons: Independent of the personal conditions at the beginning of an employment, trait and state mindfulness are thought to improve by training (Brown & Ryan, 2003). As mentioned in section 3.21, already short-term mindfulness induction demonstrates beneficial effects (cf. Ditto et al., 2006) and some mindfulness trainings are particularly adapted to the work life (cf. Klatt et al., 2009; cf. Mackenzie et al., 2006). In
particular, employers in the health service sector should consider the integration of mindfulness training, because much research indicating the usefulness of such trainings has been conducted in this area. By investing in trainings, organizations foster the cultivation of mindfulness as a
Discussion
quality of consciousness that is positively associated with contextual performance and well-being at work.
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