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(1)

Complexity Theory

⇔ ⊆  ⊕

Sipser–Gács–Lautemann

Theorem:

BPP BPP

Σ Σ

2

Notation: y,z∈{0,1}myz := componentw. xor

Now fix p(n)-time NTM M for L

BPP BPP

.

For input x, M guesses a random string r∈{0,1}p(n). RM(x) := { all r∈{0,1}p(n) leading M to accept x }

xL ⇒ Card

(

RM(x)

)

(1-2-n)·2p(n)

xL ⇒ Card

(

RM(x)

)

2-n·2p(n)

Goal: L =

{

x | t1,…,tp(|x|)∈{0,1}p(|x|) :

y∈{0,1}p(|x|) : ∃i=1,…,p(|x|): ytiRM(x)

} ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ Σ Σ

2

→ Exercise

„Derandomization“

∩ Π Π

2

P P

(2)

Complexity Theory

Hypothesis: R⊆{0,1}p, Card(R) ≥ (1-2-n)·2p

Claim:t1,…,tp∈{0,1}p : ∀y∈{0,1}pjp: ytjR

Erd ő s' Probabilistic Method

<1 Probablistic proof:

Consider random t

1

,…,t

p

. For any fixed y ∈ {0,1}

p

:

•Pr

t

[ ytR ] ≤ 2

-n

•Pr

t

1,…,tp

[ ∀ jp: yt

j

R ]

≤ (2

-n

)

p

•Pr

t

1,…,tp

[ ∃ y ∈ {0,1}

p

: ∀ jp:

yt

j

R ] ≤ 2

p

·(2

-n

)

p

Exercise

(3)

Complexity Theory

Zusammenfassung I

• Asymptotik, Rechenmodelle, Ressourcen

• Vergleich von Problemen: Reduktion

• Turingmaschinen und ihre Programmierung

• polynom. Laufzeit und Speicher: P und PSPACE

• Beispielprobleme: Eulerkreis, Hamiltonkreis (EC),

Kantenüberdeckung, Knotenüberdeckung (VC), TSP, Clique, Independent Set, Erfüllbarkeit (SAT, 3SAT)

• polynomielle Reduktionen zwischen ihnen

• NP-Vollständigkeit, Satz von Cook-Levin

• Approximationsalgorithmen und Güte (VC, metr.

TSP, Knapsack); Grenzen der Approximierbarkeit

(4)

Complexity Theory

• PSPACE-Vollständigkeit und QBF

• Gewinnstrategien für ein 2-Player Spiel

• nichtdeterministischer Platz: Satz von Savitch

• und Satz von Immerman&Szelepcsényi

• NL und Parallelcomputing; Schaltkreise

• Komplexität und Kryptographie (UP)

• Probabilistische Komplexitätsklassen RP, BPP

• polynomielle Hierarchie P

NP

, NP

NP

, P

NPNP

etc

• BPPNP

NP

coNP

NP

Zusammenfassung II

(5)

Complexity Theory

Complexity Zoo

no lower bounds proven!

only 'relative' ones:

e.g. „If SAT ∈ P , then NP = P “ Method: reduction,

i.e. algorithm design + analysis (again).

Sequel: „Advanced Complexity Theory“

time versus space hierarchy theorems Baker, Gill & Solovay

• Kolmogorov Complexity

• 1-tape DTMs

(6)

Complexity Theory

Topological, Algebraic, and

Physical Aspects of Computing Church-Turing Hypothesis:

Anything that should be considered computable in practice can be computed by a Turing machine.

(strong)

efficiently

polytime

• Sound upper and lower bounds for simulation problems in physics

• Topological and algebraic lower bounds for

computational problems over real numbers

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