The artificial paradise: programme and ideology of royal gardens

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N O V A K THE ARTIFICIAL PARADISE

M I R K O N O V A K Tubi ngen

The Artificial Paradise: Programme and Ideology of Royal Gardens

Preface

T o the inhabitants of the arid regions of the Near East, the flourishing gar

den always had been more than just a resource of fruits and vegetables. In their perception it symbolised, and still does, peace and fertility. As a place of romantic affairs it also had a strong sexual connota

tion. This had certain effects on Mesopota- mian kingship ideologies: One of the as

pects of a ruler was that of a gardener.

The Assyrian kings developed the idea of huge gardens with botanical granaries and hunting parks. These "artificial paradises"

were obviously a substantial element of their city planning programmes. The con

cept was adopted by all the succeeding dy

nasties until medieval times. In the follow

ing, the layout, the function, and the ide

ology of those gardens will be discussed.

The Sexual Connotation of the Garden

The landscape of Southern Mesopotamia is characterised by far stretching steppes cut by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Since there is little rain, natural vegetation is very poor. Only on the base of irrigation it is possible to transform portions of the desert into fertile land, useable for a sufficient agriculture.

The perception of this difficult environ

ment by its ancient inhabitants had the ef

fect that a flourishing garden was seen as the ideal landscape. With its fresh air, cool shade, sweet fruit and cold water it was a perfect place for recovery and a nice setting for romantic affairs.

¹

Since a garden is the result of hard and

constant labour, it became a synonym of civilisation. As a supernatural paradise and a symbol of fertility it also was a favourite topic in literature.

²

Its strong sexual conno

tation made it a source of metaphors like those of the male and female genitals and of sexual intercourse.

3

The vulva, e.g., was described as a "well-watered low land, a wet place," which should be "ploughed."

⁴

In an erotic poem a bride - or rather a pros

titute

⁵

- sings:

"Do not dig [a canal], let me be your canal, do not plough [a field], let me be your field.

Farmer, do not search for a wet place, my precious sweet, let me be your wet place."⁶

1 Used by gods (Glassner 1991: 11, Leick 1994: 134, 4 Leick 1994: 92, Haas 1999: 130ff.

Haas 1999: 130) and humans (Haas 1999: 128ff). 5 Haas 1999: 143.

2 Andrae 1947-52. 6 Leick 1994: 93.

3 Groneberg 1999: 183f.

S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting (eds.) CRRA147 (Helsinki 2002)

ISBN 951-45-9054-6 443

Originalveröffentlichung in S. Parpola / R. M. Whiting (Hg.), Sex and Gender in Ancient Near East, Compte rendu de la ...e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale 47, Helsinki 2002, S. 443–460

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•M

mm.

mm

•

Fig. 1 The so-called "Lion Hunt Stela", [from Uruk, Early Sumerian Period, from Orthmann 1975, Abb. 68]

T h e m a l e l o v e r w a s o f t e n c a l l e d a g a r

dener.7 T h i s p o i n t s to the f a c t that not o n l y d i d the garden h a v e a strong s e x u a l c o n n o tation but a l s o that the gardener w a s a p e r son w i t h p r o n o u n c e d sex a p p e a l . It therefore is not astonishing that several o f the lovers o f the goddess Inanna were gardeners.8

The Idea of the "Royal Gardener and Hunter"

T h e strong s e x u a l c o n n o t a t i o n o f the g a r d e n and the g a r d e n e r as the l o v e r o f I n a n n a had s e v e r a l e f f e c t s on the S u m e r i a n and B a b y l o n i a n k i n g s h i p i d e o l o g y f r o m the e n d o f the 3rd m i l l e n n i u m B C o n w a r d s . Its p r e d o m inant principle w a s the " c h a r i s m a t i c ruler."9

T h i s m e a n s that the k i n g w a s p r i m a r i l y q u a l ified b y his particular c a p a b i l i t i e s - his per

sonal charisma10 - to f u l f i l his G o d - g i v e n m a n d a t e to rule, m o r e than t h r o u g h g e n e a l o g y . "

S i n c e the t w o pillars o f p r e - u r b a n s o cieties w e r e s t o c k - b r e e d i n g and a g r i c u l t u r e , the t w o p r e - e m i n e n t , m y t h o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d duties o f the S u m e r i a n k i n g w e r e , first, to ensure a s u c c e s s f u l harvest - m o s t l y b y tak

ing care o f the irrigation c h a n n e l s - a n d , s e c o n d , to protect the herds a g a i n s t w i l d beasts and e n e m i e s . B a s e d on this, the ar

c h e t y p e o f the " r o y a l g a r d e n e r a n d h u n t e r "

w a s d e v e l o p e d in literature and art.12 O n the f a m o u s " L i o n H u n t S t e l a " f r o m U r u k ( F i g . 1) and on several c y l i n d e r seals o f the E a r l y S u m e r i a n p e r i o d the ruler is s h o w n as g a r dener, s h e p h e r d or hunter o f w i l d beasts.

S e v e r a l o f the early rulers k n o w n f r o m the " S u m e r i a n K i n g L i s t " or f r o m epic lit

erature w e r e said to be gardeners or s h e p herds: D u m u z i , k i n g o f B a d - T i b i r a b e f o r e the f l o o d and d i v i n e l o v e r o f I n a n n a , w a s a s h e p h e r d a n d later b e c a m e the g o d o f f e r tility. In the ritual o f the " H o l y M a r r i a g e "

the S u m e r i a n k i n g w a s a substitute o f D u m u z i in order to a w a k e nature after the dry

7 Haas 1999: 129.

8 Groneberg 1999: 184f. The sex-appeal of the gardener is also visible in the legend about the origin of Sargon, the first king of Agade, whose stepfather is said to have been a gardener.

9 On the Babylonian and Assyrian kingship ideologies see e.g. Edzard 1972-75, Lambert 1974, Rollig 1981, Maul 1995, Maul 1998, Cancik-Kirschbaum 1995,

Franke 1995, Selz 1998 and Pongratz-Leisten 1994.

On the definition of charisma in the sense of M.

Weber see Hillmann 1994: 125.

1' Of course, ideology and reality were generally distinc

tive. Babylonian kingship was never based on a real

"meritocracy."

12 For the royal gardener and hunter see Stahler 1997, Fauth 1979.

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season.1 3 B e i n g the m a i n s h e p h e r d and g a r

dener he n a t u r a l l y w a s the l o v e r o f the g o d dess I n a n n a w i t h kuzbu " s e x a p p e a l " a n d baltu " p o t e n c y . "

T h e i d e a o f the " r o y a l g a r d e n e r and h u n

t e r " w a s a l i v e until the end o f B a b y l o n i a n c i v i l i s a t i o n s .1 4 It w a s a d o p t e d in A s s y r i a , s i n c e m o s t o f the d u t i e s o f the A s s y r i a n k i n g w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e o f his B a b y l o n i a n counterpart.1 5

Babylonian Gardens

A s a s o u r c e o f fruits and v e g e t a b l e s the garden h a d a l w a y s b e e n an i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c f e a t u r e . M a n y o f the written d o c u m e n t s l i k e l e g a l texts or letters i n f o r m us a b o u t the d i s t i n c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a n d the e c o n o m i c o r g a n i s a t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n o f g a r d e n s , as w e l l as a b o u t the duties o f the gardeners.1 6 T h e g a r d e n s , n a m e d w i t h the S u m e r i a n l o a n w o r d kirum or the S e m i t i c t e r m gannu," w e r e o w n e d b y the state or the p a l a c e , b y t e m p l e s and b y p r i v a t e p e r s o n s . T h e g a r d e n e r s u s u a l l y rented the g a r d e n s and had to p a y f i x e d taxes as is d e s c r i b e d , f o r e x a m p l e , in the C o d e x H a m m u r a b i .

It is k n o w n f r o m a n u m b e r o f texts that all o f the great g o d s o f B a b y l o n i a p o s s e s s e d

their o w n " h o l y " gardens.1 8 T h e e c o n o m i c d i m e n s i o n w a s the s u p p o r t o f the t e m p l e s t a f f w i t h the y i e l d s . T h e r e l i g i o u s aspect w a s the setting o f several c u l t i c c e r e monies1'' l i k e the n e w y e a r f e s t i v a l akltu.

T h a t is the reason w h y g a r d e n s are m e n t i o n e d in the s u r r o u n d i n g o f the bit akiti, s o m e t i m e s n a m e d kiri hallat.20

G a r d e n s b e l o n g i n g to the B a b y l o n i a n k i n g are attested in textual r e f e r e n c e s f r o m the 3rd, 2 n d and 1st m i l l e n n i a .2 1 A l l o f t h e m h a d p r i m a r i l y e c o n o m i c f u n c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y had to s u p p l y the h o u s e h o l d s o f the r o y a l f a m i l i e s . T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n f o r a p r o g r a m m a t i c i d e o l o g y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the c u l t i v a t i o n o f r o y a l g a r d e n s in B a b y l o n i a .

The Universal Gardens in Assyria

A n e w t y p e o f garden w a s d e v e l o p e d in A s s y r i a at the end o f the 2 n d m i l l e n n i u m . T i g l a t h - P i l e s e r I ( 1 1 1 4 - 1 0 7 6 B C ) m e n t i o n e d in h i s i n s c r i p t i o n s that he b r o u g h t plants f r o m all k n o w n r e g i o n s o f the w o r l d

to A s s y r i a and c u l t i v a t e d t h e m w i t h i n the r o y a l gardens2 2 to be a p l a c e ana multa'it belutija " f o r the l e i s u r e o f m y m a j e s t y . "2 3 In its centre a s m a l l p a l a c e w a s erected, w h e r e the w a l l s i n s i d e w e r e p a i n t e d w i t h the i l l u s -

13 H a a s 1 9 9 9 : 1 2 2 f f .

14 In a p o e m k i n g A m m i d i t a n a o f B a b y l o n is c a l l e d a

" g a r d e n e r " ( H a a s 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 0 ) . E v e n t h e g r e a t B a b y l o n i a n g o d M a r d u k w a s n a m e d a g a r d e n e r in an O l d B a b y l o n i a n p o e m w h i c h d e s c r i b e s h i s l o v e a f f a i r w i t h I s t a r a n d t h e b l a m e o f h i s w i f e Z a r p a n i t u m ( H a a s 1 9 9 9 : 1 5 9 f f ) . 15 B u t in c o n t r a s t t o t h e B a b y l o n i a n r u l e r , the A s s y r i a n k i n g u n i f i e d the s p i r i t u a l a n d s e c u l a r p o w e r a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d as the i n t e r l o c u t o r b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d g o d s . B a s e d o n h i s r o l e as issiakkum " g o v e r n o r " a n d sangu

" h i g h p r i e s t " o f t h e g o d A s s u r , h e b e c a m e a k i n d o f

" p r i e s t - k i n g " o f an e x t e n d e d e m p i r e , w h o h a d t o s u p e r v i s e t h e p r o p e r t y o f the n a t i o n a l g o d , t h e " t r u e k i n g " o f

t h e c i t y a n d the n a t i o n .

16 O n t h e a s p e c t s o f c u l t i v a t i o n o f d a t e p a l m g a r d e n s in B a b y l o n i a s e e R e n g e r 1 9 8 2 .

17 S e e a l s o A r a b i c gonna.

18 G l a s s n e r 1 9 9 1 , M a r g u e r o n 1 9 9 2 .

19 T h e " C u l t i c C a l e n d a r " o f t h e U r III p e r i o d i n f o r m s u s a b o u t a k i r i6. m a h at N i p p u r a n d s o m e o f f e r i n g s in g a r d e n s at G i r s u . S e e S a l l a b e r g e r 1 9 9 3 : 1 l O f f , 3 0 3 f .

2 0 C o c q u e r i l l a t 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 : 133.

21 W i s e m a n 1983 a n d 1 9 8 4 , G l a s s n e r 1 9 9 1 . 2 2 L a c k e n b a c h e r 1 9 8 2 : 1 2 6 - 2 7 .

2 3 G l a s s n e r 1 9 9 1 : 14.

4 4 5

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_ J Zrtadelle RuBIauf Oder Kanal 6uom

Palast

Sakialbau Garten

Fig. 2 The Assyrian residential city of Kalhu, built by king Assur-nasir-apli II (883-859 B C ) . [drawing by Gabi Elsen-Novak]

trations o f the d e e d s o f the king.2 4

A s s u r - n a s i r - a p l i II ( 8 8 3 - 8 5 9 BC) t o o k up the idea o f s u c h a u n i v e r s a l garden:2 5 C l o s e to his n e w f o u n d e d residential city o f K a l h u ( F i g . 2) he laid o u t a h u g e kiri risate " g a r den o f p l e a s u r e " c o v e r i n g an area o f 25 k m2. F o r t y - o n e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f trees w e r e planted and several k i n d s o f w i l d a n i m a l s w e r e kept i n s i d e " f o r the a s t o n i s h m e n t o f the A s s y r i a n p e o p l e . "2 6 A n irrigation c h a n nel w a s d u g f r o m the U p p e r Z a b , w h i c h led to the W a d I S o r D a r r a at the southern f l a n k o f the c i t y . A s far as it c a n be reconstructed f r o m a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and literary s o u r c e s , the garden stretched s o u t h and west o f the c i t y .

S i n c e the r o y a l p a l a c e w a s situated at the w e s t e r n e d g e o f the c i t a d e l , it o v e r l o o k e d both the T i g r i s v a l l e y and part o f the gar

dens. P r e s u m a b l y s o m e o f the w e s t e r n m o s t r o o m s o f this p a l a c e h a d o p e n a c c e s s to a k i n d o f p a n o r a m a terrace as is k n o w n f r o m the later A s s y r i a n architecture.

E v i d e n c e f o r s u c h a p l a t f o r m is, e.g., to be f o u n d in the p a l a c e o f S h a l m a n a s s e r III ( 8 5 8 - 8 2 4 BC). A t the southern f l a n k o f this p a l a c e - b u i l t on an a r t i f i c i a l terrace - there w a s an o p e n area w i t h a tripartite suite ( F i g . 3). F r o m here o n e c o u l d o v e r l o o k the s o u t h ern g a r d e n s . A s far as is k n o w n , this w a s the first t i m e in M e s o p o t a m i a that a v i s u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n architecture and l a n d s c a p e w a s created.

K i n g S a r g o n II ( 7 2 1 - 7 0 5 BC) erected h i s n e w residential city D u r - S a r r u k e n ( F i g . 4 ) in the m i d d l e o f a s p a c i o u s p a r k , w h i c h w a s c a l l e d kirimdhu27 " m i g h t y (or h u g e ) gar

d e n " and laid out tamsil k"rljamani " l i k e the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s . "2 8 A l l plants o f the

" m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n s o f IFfatti" w e r e c u l t i vated w i t h i n it.29

B o t h in his m a i n p a l a c e o n the citadel terrace as w e l l as in the s e c o n d a r y p a l a c e o n another p l a t f o r m , the s o - c a l l e d bit kutalli, S a r g o n erected the s a m e k i n d o f p a n o r a m a areas w i t h a tripartite suite j u s t as in " F o r t S h a l m a n a s s e r " ( F i g . 5). F r o m there a v i e w to the p a r k s and gardens w a s p o s s i b l e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , a n e w e l e m e n t a p p e a r e d in the A s s y r i a n architecture: T h e s o - c a l l e d bit hilani, w h i c h is d e s c r i b e d as a " h o u s e o f w i n d o w s l i k e the Hittite p a l a c e s . "3 0 In c o n trast to the m o d e r n d e f i n i t i o n , the bit hilani o f the A s s y r i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s w a s o n l y the o p e n entrance w i t h a c o l u m n hall.3 1 In the

-4 Novak 1996: 343. Ur III period on. See Sallaberger 1993: HOf.

25 Wiseman 1984: PI. 5, Glassner 1991: 13. 28 Margueron 1992: 71.

26 Luckenbill 1926: 189, de Filippi 1977: 31, Fauth 29 Stronach 1990: 172.

1979: 16. 30 Fuchs 1994: 309 (Z. 28-29).

27 The Sumerian term was used in another sense from the 31 Novak 1996: 340ff.

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Fig. 3 T h e palace of Shalmanesser III (858-824 BC) in Kalhu. [from Heinrich 1984: 114, Abb. 65]

bit kutalli o f D u r - S a r r u k e n s u c h a bit hildni g a v e a c c e s s f r o m the p a n o r a m a p l a t f o r m to the i n n e r r o o m s o f the b u i l d i n g . F r o m i n s i d e the hall the l a n d s c a p e c o u l d be o v e r l o o k e d . S o m e reliefs o f the p a l a c e s h o w garden s c e n e s : the k i n g and his o f f i c i a l s are r i d i n g o n h o r s e b a c k or in chariots t h r o u g h the g a r

den w i t h p l e n t y o f plants and animals.3 2 In the centre o f a s m a l l lake or r i v e r a p a v i l i o n c a n be seen w i t h an o p e n c o l u m n h a l l l i k e that o f the bit hilani. In the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f S a r g o n ' s son S e n n a c h e r i b s u c h s m a l l g a r d e n p a l a c e s w e r e c a l l e d bltanu, a w o r d d e r i v i n g f r o m w e s t e r n S e m i t i c languages.3 3

T h i s , the architectural e l e m e n t o f the bit hildni a n d the m e n t i o n i n g o f the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s as m o d e l o f the parks s h o w that the A s s y r i a n garden p r o g r a m m e s w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y S y r i a n or L e v a n t i n e m o d e l s .

L i k e his father b e f o r e , S e n n a c h e r i b ( 7 0 4 - 6 8 1 B C ) i n c l u d e d horticultural p r o g r a m m e s

/

~J Znadelle Flufllauf oder Kanal Palast

BOOm

T Sakralbau Garten

See Albenda 1986, PI. 86-90.

Oppenheim 1965: 330.

Fig. 4 The Assyrian residential city of Dur-Sarruken, built by king Sargon II ( 7 2 1 - 7 0 5 BC). [drawing by Gabi Elsen-Novak]

447

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NOVAK THE ARTIFICIAL PARADISE

CITY W A L L

T E R R A C E

©

2 6 C E N T R A L C O U R T

I

95.6 M

ACTUAL. DISTANCE .

Fig. 5 Palace F in Dur-Sarruken. [from Heinrich 1984: 170, Abb. 106]

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into h i s c i t y p l a n n i n g w h e n h e m o v e d h i s r e s i d e n c e to N i n e v e h ( F i g . 6). T h e s e g a r d e n s can b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m the literary s o u r c e s . O n e i n s c r i p t i o n s a y s :

A b o v e the city and below the city I laid out parks. The wealth of mountain and all lands, all the herbs of the land of Haiti, myrrh plants, among which fruitfulness was greater than their natural habitat, all kinds of mountain-vines, all fruits of all lands, herbs and fruit-bearing trees I set out for my subjects.34

O n e o f the g a r d e n s w a s situated b e l o w the c i t a d e l and c l o s e to the r i v e r b a n k o f the T i g r i s and a n o t h e r o n e north o f the S i n Gate.3 5 B o t h w e r e c a l l e d kirimahu. T h e o n e c l o s e to the c i t a d e l w a s p r o b a b l y the setting o f the bit akiti " N e w Y e a r F e s t i v a l H o u s e "

a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h the r o y a l p a l a c e b y a muslalu-gate.?6

F r o m the p a l a c e in the s o u t h w e s t e r n part o f the c i t a d e l the g a r d e n s in the r i v e r v a l l e y w e r e v i s i b l e . T h e s o u t h w e s t e r n f l a n k o f the b u i l d i n g w a s p r o b a b l y c o n s t r u c t e d as a series o f s m a l l c o l u m n h a l l s that g a v e a c c e s s f r o m the i n n e r p a l a c e to a p a n o r a m a p l a t f o r m , w h i c h w a s situated at the v e r y e d g e o f the c i t a d e l h i g h a b o v e the r i v e r a n d the gardens.3 7

A r e l i e f illustrates this f o r m o f a r c h i t e c ture ( F i g . 7):3 8 A b o v e three r i n g s o f r a m parts w i t h t o w e r s a f a c a d e w i t h at least t w o c o l u m n h a l l s is v i s i b l e . E a c h o n e has t w o s l i m c o l u m n s s t a n d i n g on b a s e s in the s h a p e o f l i o n s and is f l a n k e d b y t w o s t r o n g p i l l a r s w i t h Lamassu-buUs. T h e c i t y w a s i d e n t i f i e d as N i n e v e h w i t h its d o u b l e city w a l l and the p r o t e c t i o n w a l l o f the citadel.3 9 T h e p a l a c e

\

\ \

" J Zitadelle

Ndfilnu Oder Kanal Palast

• Sakralbau Garten .1,:

F i g . 6 T h e A s s y r i a n r e s i d e n t i a l c i t y o f N i n e v e h , r e b u i l t b y k i n g S e n n a c h e r i b ( 7 0 4 - 6 8 1 B C ) . [drawing by Gabi Elsen-Novdk]

is " r i d i n g " on top o f the p l a t f o r m and d o m i n a t i n g the c i t y .

N o r t h o f the A d a d Gate4 0 and northeast o f the c i t y stretched a s p a c i o u s p a r k n a m e d ambassu.41 It c o n s i s t e d o f b o t a n i c a l g r a n a r i e s w i t h plants and fruits f r o m all re

g i o n s o f the e m p i r e , a l a n d s c a p e p a r k , and h u n t i n g areas w i t h w i l d a n i m a l s f r o m d i f f e r e n t countries.4 2

A series o f r e l i e f s f o u n d in the p a l a c e s o f

14 L u c k e n b i l l 1 9 2 4 : 1 1 3 f f .

5 T h i s g a t e w a s a l s o c a l l e d t h e abul kirate " g a r d e n

; a t e . "

6 W i s e m a n 1 9 8 3 : 139.

7 N o v a k 1 9 9 6 : 3 4 7 f .

8 N o v a k 1 9 9 6 : 3 4 1 a n d 1 9 9 7 : 1 8 6 f .

, y R e a d e 1 9 9 8 : 8 8 f f .

4 0 T h i s g a t e w a s a l s o c a l l e d t h e abul ambassi.

4 1 T h e t e r m d e r i v e s m o s t p r o b a b l y f r o m the H u r r i a n l a n g u a g e . S e e O p p e n h e i m 1 9 6 5 : 3 3 3 a n d G l a s s n e r 1 9 9 1 :

10, 12.

4 2 O p p e n h e i m 1 9 6 5 : 3 3 0 , W i s e m a n 1 9 8 3 : 1 3 9 .

4 4 9

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Fig. 8 Illustration of an Assyrian "Paradise Garden" in Nineveh, on top of a hill a garden palace with column hall entrance, beside of it an aqueduct; Assyrian relief from Nineveh, time of Assurbanipal (668-631 BC). [from Orthmann 1975, Fig. 240]

(9)

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F i g . 9 T h e A s s y r i a n k i n g A s s u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 8 - 6 3 1 B C ) a n d h i s w i f e l y i n g in the qirsu " v i n e y a r d " o f h i s g a r d e n ; A s s y r i a n r e l i e f f r o m N i n e v e h , [from Orthmann 1975, Fig. 247]

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F i g . 10 T h e r o y a l l i o n h u n t o f the A s s y r i a n k i n g A s s u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 8 - 6 3 1 B C ) , A s s y r i a n r e l i e f f r o m N i n e v e h , [from Hrouda 1991:

353]

N i n e v e h r e f l e c t the r o y a l g a r d e n s . O n e o f them,4 1 d a t i n g to the reign o f A s s u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 8 - 6 3 1 B C ) , illustrates the g a r d e n itself ( F i g . 8):44 It s h o w s a h i l l , p l a n t e d w i t h d i f ferent trees. A s y s t e m o f c h a n n e l s and an a q u e d u c t h e l p e d to irrigate the g a r d e n . T h e a q u e d u c t l o o k s v e r y m u c h l i k e the o n e b u i l t b y S e n n a c h e r i b at J e r w a n northeast o f N i n e veh.4 5 A p a v i l i o n w i t h a c o l u m n h a l l , w h i c h again can be i d e n t i f i e d as a bltanu, is situ

ated o n top o f the hill.4 6

A n o t h e r r e l i e f s h o w s k i n g A s s u r b a n i p a l a n d his w i f e in a qirsu w i t h i n the b o t a n i c a l g r a n a r y ( F i g . 9). T h e h e a d o f the E l a m i t e k i n g T e - U m m a n that h a n g s d o w n f r o m a tree creates a p o l i t i c a l , i d e o l o g i c a l and a l s o c e r e m o n i a l a t m o s p h e r e o f the scenery.4 7

O t h e r reliefs s h o w l i o n s in the h u n t i n g area, either r e c o v e r i n g u n d e r the trees or b e i n g k i l l e d d u r i n g the r o y a l hunt b y the k i n g ( F i g . 10).

O r t h m a n n 1 9 7 5 , A b b . 2 4 0 . 4 6 O p p e n h e i m 1 9 6 5 : 3 2 9 .

N o v a k 1 9 9 7 : 1 8 2 f f , R e a d e 1 9 9 8 : 8 7 f . 4 7 D e l l e r 1 9 8 7 . J a c o b s e n 1 9 3 5 .

4 5 1

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The Function and the Ideology of the "Artificial Paradise" in Assyria

It is e v i d e n t that the c r e a t i o n o f these p a r a

d i s e - l i k e g a r d e n s in A s s y r i a neither had e c o n o m i c purposes4 8 n o r d i d they - in c o n trast to their m e n t i o n i n g in the texts - s e r v e o n l y f o r the " l e i s u r e o f the m a j e s t y . " T h e l a y o u t a n d character o f the g a r d e n s as w e l l as the m a n n e r o f their i l l u s t r a t i o n i n v i s u a l art i n d i c a t e that there w a s a p r o g r a m m a t i c m e s s a g e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m .

T h e k i n g s o f t e n stressed in their i n s c r i p t i o n s that the g a r d e n s w e r e p l a c e d o n f o r m e r u n u s e d and desert land. A s stated b e f o r e , the f l o u r i s h i n g g a r d e n w a s a s y m b o l o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . T h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f the steppe and the s u c c e s s f u l c r e a t i o n o f an a r t i f i c i a l p a r a d i s e b y the A s s y r i a n k i n g p r o b a b l y s h o u l d m a i n t a i n the f e r t i l i t y o f A s s y r i a u n d e r the r e i g n o f its c h a r i s m a t i c ruler. In c o n t r a s t to this, the k i n g and h i s s o l d i e r s d e s t r o y e d the g a r d e n s in h o s t i l e c o u n t r i e s , as v i s i b l e on s o m e reliefs.4 9

T h e l a y o u t o f the p a r a d i s e g a r d e n s w a s d e p e n d a n t o n the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t o f the

" r o y a l g a r d e n e r and h u n t e r " : T h e b o t a n i c a l s e c t i o n s y m b o l i s e d the f u n c t i o n o f the k i n g as g a r d e n e r , the h u n t i n g areas the o n e o f the p r o t e c t o r o f the herds and k i l l e r o f the w i l d beasts. T h e s e x u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f the gar

den u n d e r l i n e d the v i r i l i t y , the p o w e r and the s e x a p p e a l o f the k i n g , w h i c h w a s s u p p o r t e d i n the v i s u a l art b y the i m a g e s o f the strong and v i c t o r i o u s k i n g .

Plants and a n i m a l s f r o m all k n o w n c o u n tries w e r e kept w i t h i n the g a r d e n s a n d thus turned t h e m into a m i c r o c o s m in t h e m s e l v e s , representing all parts o f the w o r l d . T h i s w a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f the cities, w h i c h

w e r e p o p u l a t e d b y p e o p l e o f all c o n q u e r e d c o u n t r i e s .

A s an u r b a n e l e m e n t w i t h i d e o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g , the r o y a l g a r d e n w a s j u s t a part o f a greater c i t y p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m m e . T h e A s s y r i a n k i n g s w e r e a c t i v e in s h i f t i n g the p o l itical c e n t r e - the " h o r i z o n t a l a x i s "5 0 - o f the e m p i r e . M e a n w h i l e , the city o f A s s u r , the o l d c o r e o f the e m p i r e w i t h the m a i n t e m p l e o f the n a t i o n a l g o d A s s u r , r e m a i n e d the c u l t i c centre - the " v e r t i c a l a x i s . "

T h e r e s i d e n t i a l c i t y , the dl sarruti " c i t y o f k i n g s h i p , " w a s s u r r o u n d e d b y h u g e artifi

c i a l p a r a d i s e - g a r d e n s .5 1 A c i t a d e l at its p e r i p h e r y , w h e r e the r o y a l p a l a c e s as w e l l as the m a i n t e m p l e s w e r e situated, w a s d o m i n a t ing the w h o l e c i t y a n d c r e a t i n g a distinct d i s t a n c e to the d w e l l i n g quarters o f the c o m m o n p e o p l e in the l o w e r t o w n . T h e k i n g h i m s e l f l i v e d in h i s p a l a c e h i g h a b o v e the c i t y , c l o s e to the t e m p l e s o f the g o d s . T h e p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s w e r e v i s i b l e f r o m o u t s i d e as w e l l as i n s i d e the c i t y , so that e v e r y b o d y c o u l d a p p r e c i a t e the p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i cal m e s s a g e : the p a l a c e as the subat sarruti

" s e a t o f k i n g s h i p , " b u i l t ana tabrat kissat nise " f o r the a s t o n i s h m e n t o f all p e o p l e s , "5 2

represented the k i n g ' s p o w e r o v e r the citi

z e n s .

T h e a s s e m b l a g e o f c i t y and g a r d e n s w a s a s y m b o l o f the c h a r i s m a t i c k i n g a n d c r e ator53 o f c i v i l i s a t i o n . Its u n i v e r s a l character w i t h p e o p l e , p l a n t s and a n i m a l s o f all c o n q u e r e d r e g i o n s w i t h i n e m p h a s i s e d the c l a i m o f the A s s y r i a n k i n g to rule the entire u n i v e r s e as the sar kibrat erbettim " k i n g o f the f o u r e d g e s . "

48 Oates 1968. 51 Novak 1997: 186ff and 1999: 385 ff.

49 Galterl989, Bleibtreu 1989 . 52 Winter 1993: 27ff.

50 On the idea of a "horizontal" and a "vertical" axis of 53 Lackenbacher 1982.

the world see Maul 1997.

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N O V A K T H E ARTIFICIAL P A R A D I S E

tVA

f / .

•^wk

h.

d*

N:

Fig. 11 The paradise garden and the apadana palaces in Pasargadae, the residential city of the Achaemenid king Cyros II (559-530 BC). [from Kawami 1992: 89, Fig. 31]

The Iranian "Paradises"

T h e e n d o f the A s s y r i a n e m p i r e d i d n o t m a r k the end o f the r o y a l g a r d e n s ; o n the c o n t r a r y , the h i s t o r y o f the a r t i f i c i a l para

d i s e had o n l y j u s t b e g u n .

L i t t l e is k n o w n o f B a b y l o n i a n r o y a l gar

d e n s . T h e later l e g e n d s a b o u t the s o - c a l l e d

" H a n g i n g G a r d e n s o f S e m i r a m i s " p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t real p a r a d i s e g a r d e n s in the A s s y r i a n tradition.5 4

A n e w c l i m a x o f h o r t i c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g y w a s r e a c h e d in the A c h a e m e n i d p e r i o d . H u g e p a r a d i s e s , n o w n a m e d w i t h that P e r - s i a n - A v e s t i c term paeridaeza " e n c l o s u r e , "

s u r r o u n d e d the apadana-palaces in the first A c h a e m e n i d capital P a s a r g a d a e ( F i g . 11).55

T h e apadana as architectural c o m b i n a t i o n o f a square c o l u m n hall and an o p e n c o l u m n a n t e r o o m created a v i s u a l contact b e t w e e n i n s i d e and o u t s i d e - b e t w e e n p a l a c e a n d garden.5 6 T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f garden and p a v i l i o n w i t h c o l u m n e n t r a n c e r o o m is r e m i

n i s c e n t o f A s s y r i a n l a n d s c a p e p a r k s . A s k n o w n f r o m literary s o u r c e s , b o t h a b o t a n i c a l garden and a l a n d s c a p e p a r k w i t h w i l d a n i m a l s w e r e part o f it.57 T h e b o t a n i c a l s e c t i o n w a s f o r m e d as a s y m m e t r i c a l cahar bagh " f o u r g a r d e n s , " d i v i d e d into f o u r e q u a l quarters. T h e c o v e r e d qanawdt s u p p l i e d the g a r d e n s w i t h water.

T h e p r i n c i p l e o f the p a r a d i s e g a r d e n s a n d o f the cahar bagh, w h i c h is s u p p o s e d to s y m b o l i s e the f o u r quarters o f the w o r l d , w a s a d o p t e d b y the P a r t h i a n s and S a s a - n i a n s . W e l l k n o w n e x a m p l e s o f S a s a n i a n p a r a d i s e g a r d e n s are T a q - i B u s t a n , B i s o - tun5 8 and Q a s r - i S l r m ( F i g . 12).5' E v e n the f a m o u s T a q - i K i s r a in K t e s i p h o n ( a l - M a d a ' i n ) w a s settled w i t h i n a h u g e garden area.6 0

T h e n e w l y d e v e l o p e d architectural e l e m e n t o f the iwdn - a h u g e o p e n h a l l - h e l p e d to i m p r o v e the v i s u a l c o n t a c t b e -

54 Stronach 1990. 57 Fauth 1979: 3, Tuplin 1996: 92ff.

55 Stronach 1990: 171ft, Kawami 1992: 81ff, Tuplin 58 Kleiss 1996: 11 Off.

1996: 88ff. 59 Stronach 1990: 177, Novak 1996: 359.

350ff. 60 Novak 1999: 228.

453

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m

^{O B Q}

V^>5

Fig. 12 The Sasanian garden palace Imaret-i Hosrau near Qasr-i Sinn, built by king Hosrau II (AD 590-628) in the centre of a "paradise garden."

[from Kleiss 1989, Fig. 31b]

t w e e n the p a l a c e i n s i d e and the natural or a r t i f i c i a l l a n d s c a p e outside.6 1

In v i s u a l art o f the S a s a n i a n p e r i o d , a lot o f s c e n e s t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n the r o y a l gar

d e n s w e r e p r o d u c e d . M o s t o f t h e m s h o w the k i n g as a hunter o f w i l d beasts.

A p a r t f r o m s o m e i n n o v a t i o n s , the A s s y r ian h e r i t a g e is v i s i b l e b o t h in the l a y o u t and in the i d e o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m m e o f the A c h a e m e n i d p a r a d i s e s . W i t h the " a r t i f i c i a l p a r a d i s e " the c o n c e p t o f the " r o y a l gardener and h u n t e r " w a s a l s o a d o p t e d b y the A c h a e m e n i d rulers,6 2 s i n c e this c o n c e p t c o n v e r t e d v e r y w e l l w i t h the I r a n i a n k i n g s h i p i d e o l o g y .6 3 T h e A c h a e m e n i d patterns t h e m s e l v e s i n f l u e n c e d the h o r t i c u l t u r a l p r o g r a m m e s o f the f o l l o w i n g d y n a s t i e s o f the P a r t h i a n s and S a s a n i a n s .

The "Artificial Paradises" of the Abbasid

In the A b b a s i d p e r i o d the c l i m a x o f p a r a d i s e - g a r d e n s w a s r e a c h e d : A s an a d o p t e d p r i n c i p l e f r o m the S a s a n i a n s , the c a l i p h a l - M a n s u r ( A D 7 5 4 - 7 7 5 ) a n d his s u c c e s s o r s a d d e d an e x t r a m u r a l p a r a d i s e to their n e w f o u n d e d , c i r c u l a r capital M a d i n a t a s - S a l a m ( " C i t y o f P e a c e , " a l s o n a m e d B a g d a d ; F i g . 13). A s d e s c r i p t i o n s s h o w , b o t a n i c a l g r a n aries lay n e x t to h u n t i n g parks. P a l a c e s w e r e built w i t h i n the v a s t garden areas.54

A l t h o u g h the m a i n p a l a c e , the Ddr al-Ifi- Idfa " H o u s e o f the C a l i p h a t e " in the centre o f the c i r c u l a r c i t y r e m a i n e d the o f f i c i a l seat o f the rulers, the actual r e s i d e n c e s o f the c a l i p h s and their f a m i l i e s w e r e m o v e d into the garden p a l a c e s . T h e m o s t p r o m i nent o n e w a s the Qasr al-hfuld, the " P a l a c e o f E t e r n i t y . "

In A D 8 3 6 the c a l i p h a l - M u ' t a s i m ( A D

Caliphs

8 3 3 - 8 4 2 ) s h i f t e d his c a p i t a l into the h u g e m i l i t a r y c a m p Surra m a n ra'a ( " T h e o n e is d e l i g h t e d w h o s a w i t , " m o d e r n Samarra')-

H i s p a l a c e there w a s situated in the centre o f the city at the e d g e o f a natural plateau f a c i n g the a l l u v i u m o f the r i v e r and h u g e p a r a d i s e gardens.6 5 A v i s i t o r to the p a l a c e first h a d to w a l k d o w n w a r d to the g a r d e n s ( F i g . 14). B e h i n d a large w a t e r - f i l l e d basin a b r o a d staircase led to the gate o f the p a l ace. H e r e , in or b e h i n d the m i d d l e Iwdn, the c a l i p h u s e d to g i v e h i s p u b l i c a u d i e n c e s sitting h i g h a b o v e the o r d i n a r y p e o p l e and f a c i n g the gardens. T h i s p o i n t e d o u t the distinct d i s t a n c e o f the c a l i p h to his o b e - dients, w h i c h a l s o w a s s u p p o r t e d b y c o m p l e x court c e r e m o n i e s .

T h e g a r d e n s i n s i d e the b u i l d i n g w e r e d e s i g n e d as a d o u b l e cahar bagh. T h o u g h this

353ff. 64 Novak 1999: 236ff.

Fauth 1979: Iff. 65 Northedge 1993:143ff.

Ahn 1992, Knauth - Nadjmabadi 1975.

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SOOm

M Zitadelle FluBlauf Oder KaDal Palast

T Sakralbau

— Garten

Fig. 13 T h e 'Abbasid residential city o f Madlnat as-Salam / Bagdad, built by caliph al-Mansur ( A D 754-775). [drawing by Gabi Elsen-Novak]

was a Persian type of garden it was reminis

cent of a Qur'an description of the super

natural

paradise

as a double garden (Sura LV, 62).

66

Neighbouring the palace was a vast area with hunting parks and racecourses. Inside the parks lay palaces like the one called al-Musarrahat.

67

The main feature of all the palaces was the open

Iwdn,

which was adopted from the Sasanians.

The combination of botanical granaries in geometrical layout and landscape parks for the "royal hunt" with including garden palaces obviously showed the tradition of Ancient Near Eastern programmatic

para

dise gardens. They copied Sasanian pat

terns, which themselves were modelled after their Assyrian and Achaemenid prede

cessors.

In the hadlth the paradise is described as having c o n - H e i n e 1991: 61 Of.

sisted o f seven or eight parts. S e e K h o u r y - H a g e m a n n - 6 7 N o r t h e d g e 1990: 22f.

4 5 5

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14 The Dar al-Hilafa at Surra man ra'a, built by the caliph al-Mu'tasim ( A D 833-842). [from Northedge 1990: 11, Fig. 9]

Conclusion

Since the flourishing garden has always been a symbol of fertility in the dry regions of Mesopotamia, it therefore was seen as a place of pleasure and of sexual affairs. Thus the gardener naturally was a lover of the goddesses and a person of pronounced sex appeal. This was reflected by the Sumerian kingship ideology with its two pre-eminent principles of the king as gardener and as protector of the herds.

The Assyrian kings developed the idea of the universal garden with plants and ani

mals from all known regions of the empire.

The layout of the paradise garden with its botanical granaries and vast hunting parks was dependent on the two traditional main functions of the Mesopotamian ruler. To

gether with the layout of the Assyrian res

idential city itself the garden was a symbol of the virility of the Assyrian king and his success as creator of civilisation. Further

more, it emphasised the claim to rule the entire universe.

The concept and the idea of the "artificial

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paradise," as a symbol of fertility and civili

sation and as a part of the programmatic city building activities, was alive throughout all periods from the Assyrian kingdom until the early Abbasid caliphate. Therefore, such gardens form one of the best examples of an architectonic element showing a tradi

tion continued from the Assyrian period to Islamic times not only as a physical feature but also as an ideological one. The "artifi

cial paradise" was closely connected with the ideology of the "royal gardener and hunter," which dates back to the very early times of Mesopotamian civilisation.

LITERATURE

A h n , G .

1 9 9 2 Religiose Herrscherlegitimation im achamenidischen Iran (Acta Iranica 31). L e i d e n /

L e u v e n . A l b e n d a , P.

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