Karl-Heinz Göller Uni versify of Regensburg
E C O L O G I C A L P O E T R Y :
I T S C O N T R I B U T I O N T O W A R D S A N E W V I E W O F T H E W O R L D
I. Ecology as a secular duty: Can we save the earth?
E c o l o g y1 has been a hot t o p i c of discussion for quite a few years.
T o d a y , p h i l o s o p h e r s , p h y s i c i s t s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s concur i n r e g a r d i n g it as one the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s o f the t w e n t i e t h century, as the p r o b l e m o f existence kaiexochen. M o s t governments of i n - d u s t r i a l l y d e v e l o p e d countries have t r i e d to o b v i a t e the threat of m a n - m a d e p o l l u t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n a n d the i m p a c t of i n d u s t r i a l - i z a t i o n o n t h e l i f e - s u p p o r t i n g surface o f the w o r l d .
T h e t h e r a p i e s proposed a n d e m p l o y e d , however, are m o s t l y t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d . E c o l o g y is regarded as an economic issue, s o m e t h i n g t o be dealt w i t h under the premises o f m o d e r n sciences.
O n e a n d a h a l f years ago the m a g a z i n e Dialogue p u b l i s h e d a series o f a r t i c l e s under the h e a d i n g : C a n we save the earth? F o r m a n y o f us t h i s h e a d i n g m a y s m a c k of s e n s a t i o n a l i s m , reminiscent
d e f i n i t i o n of e c o l o g y : 2. u s e d attrib. ( a n d absoi.) w i t h reference to e c o l o g i c a l issues s u c h as i n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t i o n c o n s i d e r e d i n a p o l i t i c a l context:
spec, a p p l i e d to v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t s (esp. i n western E u r o p e ) w h i c h represent the e n v i r o n m e n t a l or 'green' interest; Oxford English Dictionary, eds. J . A . S i m p s o n a n d E . S. C . W e i n e r , O x f o r d , 2 n d e d . 1989, V o l . V , 58.
of trashy n a t i o n a l papers w i l f u l l y a r o u s i n g e x c i t e m e n t , shock or an intense e m o t i o n a l response. B u t Dialogue is not a g u t t e r p u b l i c a - t i o n , it does not b e l o n g to the t a b l o i d press.
T h e magazine is p u b l i s h e d by the A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t , m o r e specifically, by the U n i t e d States G o v e r n m e n t E d i t o r i a l Office in W a s h i n g t o n . It calls itself a " q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l of significant t h o u g h t a n d o p i n i o n on s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l t u r a l issue i n the U n i t e d States". N a t u r a l l y it emphasizes the fact t h a t the o p i n i o n s w i t h i n are those of the a u t h o r s a n d not necessarily those o f the U n i t e d States' G o v e r n m e n t . Nevertheless this m a g a z i n e is s t i l l a semi-official organ, a n d every Dialogue article deserves careful at- t e n t i o n . In m y o p i n i o n , i t is one o f the most i m p o r t a n t A m e r i c a n magazines.
T h e editors of Dialogue i n t r o d u c e d t h i s series of articles o n the s t a t e o f the w o r l d w i t h a quote f r o m B a r r y C o m m o n e r w h o m a d e a n a m e for h i m s e l f 20 years ago as a n ecologist. " T h e e n v i r o n m e n t " , says C o m m o n e r , " i s a c o m p l e x s u b t l e balanced s y s t e m , a n d it is t h i s integrated whole w h i c h received the i m p a c t o f a l l the separate i n s u l t s inflicted by p o l l u t a n t s . N e v e r before i n the h i s t o r y o f t h i s p l a n e t has its t h i n l i f e - s u p p o r t i n g surface been subjected to s u c h divers, novel and p o t e n t agents".
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n ends w i t h a q u o t e f r o m B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r :
" W e are not going to be able to o p e r a t e our spaceship E a r t h suc- cessfully nor for m u c h longer unless we see it as a whole s p a c e s h i p , a n d our fate as c o m m o n . It has to be e v e r y b o d y or n o b o d y ' .2
T h e two quotes e p i t o m i z e the general character of the i n t r o d u c - t i o n . It points out t h a t i n d i v i d u a l countries do not have i n d i v i d u a l , a u t o n o m o u s ecosystems, t h a t the entire w o r l d is affected by every- t h i n g h a v i n g to do w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t , c l i m a t e a n d p o l l u t i o n . B u t the rest of this issue o f Dialogue is s l i g h t l y different i n o u t l o o k a n d ideology.
O n e o f the m a i n e x p e r t s i n t e r v i e w e d by Dialogue is L e s t e r B r o w n . H e acts as the m a i n witness i n this m a t t e r . B r o w n is founder a n d director o f the W o r l d w a t c h I n s t i t u t e i n W a s h i n g t o n
2 Dialogue, 3, 1989, p . 10.
D . C . H e is editor of the a n n u a l p u b l i c a t i o n State of the World, founded i n 1984. In a d d i t i o n to the Y e a r B o o k the i n s t i t u t e p u b - lishes the results of research on s p e c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s , some i n several languages a n d in e d i t i o n s exceeding 100.000. W o r l d - w a t c h is one of the most i m p o r t a n t centres for e n v i r o n m e n t a l re- search today.
For L e s t e r B r o w n , the future o f h u m a n i t y looks p r e t t y g r i m . T h e h e a l t h of the w o r l d is on a steady decline, as he e x p l a i n s at the b e g i n n i n g of the Dialogue i n t e r v i e w . T h e r e have not been any i m p r o v e m e n t s i n any i n d i v i d u a l sectors since the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the first State of the World issue. E a c h year the forests are g e t t i n g s m a l l e r , a n d the deserts larger. T h e t o p s o i l is g e t t i n g t h i n n e r i n m u c h the same way as the ozone layer. T h e c a r b o n d i o x i d e content i n the atmosphere is b u r g e o n i n g , different species of a n i m a l s are d y i n g o u t by the hundreds; e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n by ex- h a u s t , soot, pesticides, a n d every other possible k i n d of p o i s o n has a l r e a d y reached a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e , a n d continues to increase.
T h e diagnosis of the patient " W o r l d " is altogether d e v a s t a t i n g . E v e r y d o c t o r agrees t h a t it w i l l not h o l d on m u c h longer unless s o m e t h i n g is done i m m e d i a t e l y . B u t w h a t can be done? T h e last q u e s t i o n asked of Lester B r o w n was, " w h a t w o u l d it take to w r i t e an u p b e a t State of the World r e p o r t ? "3 T h i s was his r e p l y :
T h e question we're t r y i n g to raise is, do we want to save the E a r t h ? I f we do, then we've got to t h i n k a b o u t some serious reordering of p r i o r i t i e s . W e estimate t h a t t a k i n g the basic steps w i l l cost a b o u t $150.000 m i l l i o n a year. T h a t seems a lot, but i t ' s also o n l y o n e - s i x t h the w o r l d ' s c o m b i n e d m i l i t a r y budgets-about $900.000 m i l l i o n a year.
W e ' v e become hooked on a m i l i t a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f se- c u r i t y over the past 40 years, a n d yet for some countries e n c r o a c h i n g deserts c o u l d be a far greater threat. W e need to go back to the d r a w i n g b o a r d a n d r e t h i n k secu- r i t y . In the end, s e c u r i t y is an e c o n o m i c issue. I f a c o u n -
3Dialogue. 3, 1989, p p . 11-16.
try is losing its soils a n d i t s forests, it w i l l e v e n t u a l l y lose its p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y . Despite o u r t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances, we are s t i l l as dependent on photosynthesis as we ever were.
If we decide we w a n t to save the E a r t h , then i t ' s go- i n g to take a s u b s t a n t i a l effort a n d some hefty upfront o u t l a y s for p l a n t i n g trees, p l a n t i n g families, c o n s e r v i n g s o i l , increasing energy efficiency, d e v e l o p i n g renewable- energy resources, p r o t e c t i n g biological d i v e r s i t y a n d re- d u c i n g T h i r d W o r l d debt. A l m o s t a l l these i n v e s t i - m e n t s w i l l pay s u b s t a n t i a l r e t u r n s .4
I have g i v e n the q u o t a t i o n i n f u l l because it is t y p i c a l o f a c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e towards ecology. E v e n Lester B r o w n is c o n v i n c e d that " a serious r e o r d e r i n g o f p r i o r i t i e s " is necessary i f we want t o save the e a r t h . B u t his p r i o r i t i e s refer t o money. H e advises us to invest o u r m o n e y differently, a n d he even promises t h a t we s h a l l invest p r o f i t a b l y i f we do as he says.
T h i s is a classical e x a m p l e o f an exercise o f the c a l c u l a t i n g faculty, as P e r c y B . S h e l l e y w o u l d have called i t . In his Defence of Poetry5 t h i s poet c l a i m s t h a t the c u l t i v a t i o n o f the m e c h a n i c a l arts a n d sciences m a y have enlarged m a n ' s d o m i n i o n over the e x t e r n a l w o r l d . B u t b y e n s l a v i n g the elements, m a n has enslaved h i m s e l f .6 He resembles the n o t o r i o u s novice i n the art o f m a g i c w h o has w o r k e d c h a r m s w h i c h he c a n n o t unsay.
T h u s i t is n a t u r a l a n d l e g i t i m a t e to regard Lester B r o w n ' s p o - s i t i o n a n d t h a t o f the p r a g m a t i s t s as fostered by the s c i e n t i s t ' s a t t i t u d e t o the w o r l d . T h e theory o f m o d e r n sciences is based on the ideals o f t e c h n i c a l progress, the conquest o d n a t u r e , r a t i o - n a l i t y a n d r a t i o n a l i s m . A l l these factors have led to the o m i n o u s d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t o d a y a n d t o the a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n o f a w o r l d i n the throes o f d e a t h . C . P . Snow' said i n his n o t o r i o u s b o o k The
4Dialogue, 3, 1989, p . 16.
5P . B . Shelley, .4 Defence of Poetry (1840); r p t . i n his Complete Works, e d . R o g e r J u g p e n & W a l t e r E . P e c k , V o l . V I I , New Y o r k , 1965, p p . 105-140.
here: p . 140.
6I b i d .
Two Cultures ' that o n l y the n a t u r a l scientists h a d the f u t u r e i n their bones. M e a n w h i l e , this view seems to be o u t m o d e d . N a t u - ral scientists are now s c e p t i c a l when it comes to the q u e s t i o n o f progress. " W h e r e does progress l e a d ? "8 w o u l d be t h e i r i m m e d i - ate r e a c t i o n . T h e function o f technology as a guide l i n e for m a n ' s affairs i n this w o r l d has been g i v e n u p , a n d w i t h it t h e u n c r i t i c a l belief i n progress.
T h e h u m a n i t i e s a n d the sciences are in this respect n o l o n g e r two "separate c u l t u r e s " , as S n o w a n d m a n y others have p o s t u l a t e d . E v e n a m o n g scientists a s e n s i t i v i t y to the risks o f an a c r i t i c a l b e l i e f in technology becomes prevalent. Representatives o f t h e h u m a n i - ties a n d the sciences seem m o r e a n d more aware o f the fact t h a t they are s i t t i n g i n the s a m e b o a t . B o t h sides a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s o f t o d a y cannot be solved b y the o u t d a t e d h a b i t u a l w a y s of t h i n k i n g a n d l i v i n g o f f o r m e r periods, a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t w i t h i n or by the extant i n s t i t u t i o n s .
II. The contribution of the sciences.
Scientists d e a l i n g w i t h ecology p r o c l a i m tenets t h a t c o n j u r e u p a k i n d o f dejä y « - e x p e r i e n c e o n the side of l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s . S o m e o d o u r colleagues dismissed t h e i r theories d i s p a r a g i n g l y as a r e h a s h of r o m a n t i c beliefs. T h i s c r i t i c i s m was for instance d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t F r i t j o f C a p r a , Professor o f T h e o r e t i c a l P h y s i c s at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley w h o d e m a n d e d t h a t the w o r l d s h o u l d n o longer be seen as an ensemble of independent things a n d b e i n g s but rather as a network o r , better (because the w o r d n e t w o r k h a s m e c h a n i c a l associations) as a n o r g a n i s m . N o creature or t h i n g , he says, exists for a n d by itself. It is embedded i n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g structures a n d c a n o n l y by u n d e r s t o o d on the premise o f a u n i - versal togetherness a n d t o t a l i t y . T h i s way o f t h i n k i n g he c a l l s
" e c o l o g i c a l " . He d e m a n d s a n "ecology of d e p t h " .9
' C . P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, C a m b r i d g e , 1969.
8S e e F r i t j o f C a p r a , Der kosmische Reigen, B e r n , 1982.
9W i l l i O e l m ü l l e r , e d . , Fortschritt wohin?, D ü s s e l d o r f , 1972.
M a n y ecologists w o u l d r e a d i l y a d m i t t h a t the p h i l o s o p h i c a l and epistemological p r i n c i p l e s o f the new lore are not at a l l o r i g i n a l , but at the same t i m e they w o u l d insist t h a t their inferences d r a w n from alleged stereotypes are q u i t e alien to the purposes a n d p o s i t i o n s of idealism a n d r o m a n t i c i s m . T h e y p o i n t out t h a t a new conscious- ness is c o m i n g to b i r t h w h i c h is deeply rooted i n s p i r i t u a l i s m and religion.
A c c o r d i n g to these ecologists, m a n ' s new w o r l d - v i e w w i l l even- t u a l l y result in a new frame of m i n d . If self-assertion a n d the struggle for s u r v i v a l were previously the centre of a t t e n t i o n , the focus w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y shift towards i n t e g r a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n . M a n develops a new s e n s i t i v i t y for the differences a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s between various creatures, also w i t h i n a g i v e n species, not least w i t h i n the h u m a n race.
T h i s a d a p t a t i o n c a n n o t occur on a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l level. M a n is also zoon a n d therefore entangled i n i r r a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t o t a l i t y w h i c h c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d on r a t i o n a l premises alone.
I n t u i t i v e t h i n k i n g w i l l come i n t o its o w n , as a higher stage of ap- peal. It s u p p l e m e n t s a n a l y s i s by a t o t a l i t y o f o b s e r v a t i o n a n d , more i m p o r t a n t , by e m p a t h y . A r e v a l u a t i o n w i l l take place w h i c h fo- cuses on i n t u i t i v e , e m o t i o n a l , feminine qualities thus c o m p l e m e n t - ing m a n ' s r a t i o n a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l faculties. V a l u e s w i l l change as a result o f this: e x p a n s i o n w i l l develop i n t o m o d e r a t i o n , e x p l o i t a - t i o n i n t o p r e s e r v a t i o n , leadership into p a r t n e r s h i p , a n t a g o n i s m into togetherness.
W h a t I have l a b e l l e d " t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the sciences" cannot be seen as a result or a b y p r o d u c t of s c h o l a r l y w o r k . A c a d e m i a was o n l y of m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e for the s p r e a d i n g o f these a n d s i m - ilar ideas. T o d a y it is clear t h a t we have to do w i t h a new ideo- logical m o v e m e n t . It g a i n e d m o m e n t u m i n the 1970s. M o t i v a t i o n and i n t e n t i o n developed out o f heterogeneous areas: the women's movement, peace m o v e m e n t , T a o i s m , B u d d h i s m , n a t i v e A m e r i c a n
G . A l t n e r , Fortschritt wohin? Der Streit um die Alternative, N e u k i r c h e n , 1984.
E . D r e w e r m a n n , Der todliche Fortschritt. Von der Zerstörung der Erde und des Meuchen im Erbe des Christentums, R e g e n s b u r g , 19S2.
p h i l o s o p h y , etc. T h e y a l l have i n c o m m o n t h a t they regard Western c u l t u r e as o u t m o d e d , degenerate and in the process o f d i s s o l u t i o n . T h e y speak of the new movement as an " a s c e n d i n g c u l t u r e ' ' .1 0. C a p r a e.g. is c o n v i n c e d t h a t the demise o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i s a t i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e , since it is based on views a n d a t t i t u d e s proven to be false.
III. The problem of perspective: anthropocentric versus bio centric
T h e premise o f the o l d ethos was a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c . M a n con- sidered h i m s e l f to be the centre and ruler o f the w o r l d . H e was c o n v i n c e d t h a t a l l o f n a t u r e focuses on himself, the c r o w n o f the c r e a t i o n . J u s t how s t r o n g l y influenced h u m a n t h o u g h t a n d a c t i v - ity was by this a s s u m p t i o n is especially evident i n p o e t r y . J a m e s T h o m s o n s u m m a r i z e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m a n to the w o r l d : " M a n s u p e r i o r w a l k s / A m i d the g l a d creation, m u s i n g p r a i s e / A n d look- i n g l i v e l y g r a t i t u d e . . . " .1 1 It is o n l y logical t h a t m a n becomes the measure of a l l t h i n g s . " T h e proper s t u d y o f M a n k i n d is M a n " , ac- c o r d i n g to the l e a d i n g E n g l i s h c l a s s i c i s t ,1 2 a n d the r o m a n t i c s pretty m u c h shared t h i s v i e w . A c c o r d i n g to P e r c y B . Shelley, poets are the ' ' u n a c k n o w l e d g e d legislators o f the w o r l d ' ' .1 3 T h e s p i r i t of the w o r l d a n d the age speaks v i a the poet: " I t is i m p o s s i b l e t o read the c o m p o s i t i o n s o f the m o s t celebrated w r i t e r s o f the present day w i t h o u t b e i n g s t a r t l e d by the electric life w h i c h b u r n s w i t h i n their words. T h e y measure the circumference a n d s o u n d the depths of h u m a n n a t u r e w i t h a comprehensive a n d a l l - p e n e t r a t i n g s p i r i t . . . it is less their s p i r i t t h a n the s p i r i t of the a g e " .1 4
T h e r o m a n t i c s have a l r e a d y recognised t h a t seeing e v e r y t h i n g
1 0C a p r a , Reigen
1 1 J a m e s T h o m s o n Spring, (1728); r p t . i n his Poetical Works, e d . J a m e s L o g i e R o b e r t s o n , L o n d o n , 1965, p . 9, 11. 170-172.
1 2A l e x a n d e r P o p e , " E s s a y of M a n " , V . 237, ff.
1 3P . B . Shelley, A Defence of Poetry (1940); r p t . i n his Complete Works, e d . R o g e r J u g p e n & W a l t e r E . P e c k , V o l . V I I , New Y o r k , 1965, p p . 105-140, here: p . 140.
1 4I b i d . , p.140.
solely from a h u m a n p e r s p e c t i v e is certainly a l i m i t a t i o n . B u t w h a t other perspective do we have? M a n can o n l y p o r t r a y the i n t r i n s i c value of things f r o m his o w n perspective. J o h n K e a t s c o i n e d the term 'negative c a p a b i l i t y ' . B y t h i s he meant the s e n s u a l a b i l i t y to grasp beauty w i t h o u t i n v o l v i n g it i n a p h i l o s o p h y , o r as he w r o t e ,
" w i t h o u t any i r r i t a b l e r e a c h i n g after fact a n d r e a s o n " .1 5 H i s i d e a l is based u p o n the refusal o f personal p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d t e r m s in order to p u t oneself i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n the o t h e r ' s categories a n d thus sense a n d feel as the o t h e r does: " 0 for a L i f e o f S e n s a t i o n s rather t h a n of t h o u g h t s " .1 6 G o e t h e had a s i m i l a r a p p e a l for a dialogue w i t h n a t u r e . H i s highest ideal is t h a t there s h o u l d be an u n a d u l a t e r a t e d m e e t i n g o f m a n and n a t u r e by a transfer of s u b j e c t i v i t y to the other. V i k t o r von W a i z s ä c k e r e x p l a i n s i n his concept of Gestalt t h a t m a n m u s t p a r t i c i p a t e i n life i n o r d e r to be able to describe i t . T h e ego m u s t merge w i t h the i d .1'
B u t can m a n r e a l l y t h i n k like an a n i m a l or even a stone? W e know t o d a y t h a t there is no scientific fact i n d e p e n d e n t o f h u m a n consciousness, t h a t e v e r y t h i n g depends on h u m a n d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d values. T h o u g h t a n d research are o n l y possible w i t h i n a p a r a d i g m set by m a n himself. H e i s e n b e r g s a i d : " W e can never speak a b o u t nature w i t h o u t also s p e a k i n g a b o u t ourselves. T h u s n a t u r e a v o i d s fixation i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t e r m s by the i n e v i t a b l e d i s t u r b a n c e c o n - nected to every o b s e r v a t i o n . W h i l e it was o r i g i n a l l y the g o a l o f ev- ery s t u d y o f n a t u r e to describe n a t u r e as it r e a l l y is or s h o u l d be - t h a t is, w i t h o u t o u r i n t e r v e n t i o n or observation - we now- recognize t h a t this g o a l is u n a t t a i n a b l e " .1 8
1 5 L e t t e r to his b r o t h e r s G e o r g e a n d T o m f r o m 21 (27?) D e c e m b e r , 1817, O x - ford A n t h o l o g y o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , Romantic Poetry and Prose, e d . H a r o l d B l o o m a n d L i o n e l B r i l l i n g , O x f o r d , 1973, p p . 764-769, here: p . 765.
1 6I b i d . , p . 765.
1 7F r o m : G ü n t e r A l t n e r , Die Uberlebenskrise der Gegenwart, W i s s . B u c h g e - sellschaft, D a r m s t a d t , 1987, p p . 164-168. A l t n e r refers to V . v o n W e i z s ä c k e r , Der Gestaltkreis. Theorie der Einheit von Wahrnehmen und Bewegen, S t u t t g a r t , 4 1968.
18W . H e i s e n b e r g , " D i e G o e t h e s c h e u n d die N e w t o n s c h e F a r b e n l e h r e i m L i c h t der m o d e r n e n P h y s i c " , i n : H . M a y e r , ed., Goethe im 20. Jahrhundert.
Spiegelungen und Deutungen, H a m b u r g , 1967, p . 430.
T h u s the q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h part h u m a n t h o u g h t plays i n the new w o r l d v i e w is r a i s e d . A r e h u m a n m o r a l s a n d ethics i n the same category w i t h s i m i l a r q u a l i t i e s as those of a n i m a l s ? A r e m e n m o r e a d v a n c e d t h a n a n i m a l s ? T h i s question has not yet been answered s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , not even the most r a d i c a l representatives o f the e c o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sciences. T h e i r view of the w o r l d was a n d is s t i l l , for a l l i n t e n t s a n d purposes, h u m a n i s t i c - t h a t is focused o n m a n . T h e p a r t s o f the w o r l d a n d cosmos are s t i l l seen a n d classified f r o m m a n s p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e occasional e x p a n s i o n of the n o t i o n of f a m i l y to i n c l u d e m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a l l forms of life i n c l u d i n g p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s , is n o t even a l l t h a t new; St. F r a n c i s s u p p o r t s s i m i l a r ideals i n his Sun Song.19 H e t a u g h t that m a n a n d n a t u r e are one, a n d t h a t we thus act in o u r o w n interests when we respect the interests o f n a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y o f a n i m a l s .
P o e t s c o n c u r w i t h c u l t u r a l philosophers a n d ecologists o n t h i s c r i t i c a l p o i n t . T h e y even seem to have preceded the ecologists i n t h i s n o n - a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c v i e w o f c r e a t i o n .2 0 P o e t s are c e r t a i n l y m u c h more definite t h a n the theoreticians w h e n they p o i n t o u t t h a t there are f o r m s o f life a n d p a r t s of nature independent o f m a n , whose b e i n g a n d i n t r i n s i c value m a n cannot define or u n d e r s t a n d .
T h e new p o e t i c p e r s p e c t i v e can be called b i o c e n t r i c . T h e prac- t i c a l result m i g h t be t h a t the a u t h o r a t t e m p t s to p u t h i m s e l f i n the place o f a fish, a b i r d or a predator i n order to stop t h i n k i n g like a h u m a n b u t r a t h e r act a n d react as an a n i m a l c o u n t e r p a r t .2 1
T e d H u g h e s has d e m o n s t r a t e d most successfully w h a t results this k i n d o f shift of v i e w p o i n t can produce. H e has w r i t t e n n u - merous a n i m a l p o e m s f r o m the p o i n t o f view of the respective a n i m a l . In these p o e m s he has a t t e m p t e d to p u t h i m s e l f in place of his subject a n d to think ( i f t h i s verb is j u s t i f i a b l e ) like a b i r d , a
1 9S a n F r a n c e s c o , " C a n t i c l e of the S u n " , G e o r g e R . K a y , ed.. The Penguin Book of Italian Verse, H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1958.
2 0S e e K . M . M e y e r - A b i c h , Wege zum Frieden mit der Natur. P r a k t i s c h e N a t u r p h i l o s o p h i e f ü r die U m w e l t p o l i t i k , M ü n c h e n / W i e n , 1984, p p . 190-191.
M e y e r - A b i c h suggests a fixation of the legal s i t u a t i o n of n a t u r e in its r e l a t i o n - s h i p to m a n . H e d e m a n d s i n d e m n i t y for the p a r t s of the e n v i r o n m e n t affected w h e n , i n c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s , h u m a n interests have b e e n g i v e n p r i o r i t y .
21T . H . W h i t e , The Once and Future King, L o n d o n , 1958, p. 41 ff.
m a m m a l or a fish. O b v i o u s l y Hughes k n o w s t h a t he cannot r e a l l y experience the w o r l d as an a n i m a l does. B u t , i n spite of this, he manages to convey to the reader an e m p a t h e t i c impression of the species. In his p o r t r a y a l o f the pike, for e x a m p l e , he suggests a foreign, secretive, u n a t t a i n a b l e , a n d d a n g e r o u s intelligence w h i c h has no a n a l o g y to h u m a n s . H e p u t s h i m s e l f i n the h a w k ' s place to see a n d j u d g e the w o r l d t h r o u g h the eyes o f the b i r d . B u t t h i s r e m a i n s , of course, a mere a t t e m p t at t r a n s c r i b i n g the thoughts o f a h a w k , i f the hawk c o u l d t h i n k a n d speak. E v e r y poet is l i m i t e d by preconceptions a n d h u m a n modes o f e x p r e s s i o n .2 2
M a n y m o d e r n poets m a k e the otherness o f n a t u r e their s u b j e c t . N e a r l y a l l p o e t r y anthologies c o n t a i n p o e m s d e a l i n g w i t h n a t u r e a n d its value as regarded f r o m a n o n h u m a n perspective. G o d or the G o d s were hidden i n N a t u r e , so D e r e k M a h o n says, i n ' T h e B a n i s h e d G o d s ' ' before m a n c a m e i n t o b e i n g .2 3 B u t t o d a y the gods have been banished a n d replaced by m a n .
O n e of the ever r e c u r r i n g p r o b l e m s is the e n m i t y between m a n a n d n a t u r e . M i c h a e l H a m b u r g e r deplores t h a t even the e v e r l a s t i n g circle o f life is exclusively e v a l u a t e d under h u m a n c r i t e r i a . A d a m ' s p r e r o g a t i v e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y result i n the d e s t r u c t i o n of the e a r t h .2 4
P h i l i p L a r k i n feels t h a t the last state o f the w o r l d is at h a n d . H e k n o w s t h a t change is the l a w o f n a t u r e , b u t the speed of change i n our days indicates t h a t the e n d is near. " I j u s t t h i n k it w i l l h a p p e n , s o o n " .2 5
T h e r e are m a n y a u t h o r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w o m e n who d e m a n d a n entirely new a t t i t u d e towards n a t u r e . J u d i t h W r i g h t has her d o u b t s w h e t h e r it is not already t o o late, b u t at the same t i m e she believes t h a t " n a t u r e can heal itself after m a n y w o u n d s " . If m a n s h o u l d
2 2T e d H u g h e s , " H a w k R o o s t i n g " , in his LupercaL L o n d o n , 1960, p. 26.
See E g b e r t F a a s , Ted Hughes. The Unaccomodated Universe, S a n t a B a r b a r a , 1980. p . 199.
2 3D e r e k M a h o n , " T h e B a n i s h e d G o d s " , i n : D . A . E n r i g h t , The Oxford Book of Contemporary Verse 1945-1980, O x f o r d , 1980, p p . 274-5.
2 4M i c h a e l H a m b u r g e r , " W e e d i n g " , i n : J o h n W a i n e d . . Mythology of Con- temporary Poetry: Post-war to Present, L o n d o n , 1979, p.101.
2 6P h i l i p L a r k i n , " G o i n g , g o i n g " , i n : High Windows, L o n d o n , 1974, p p . 21- 22, hier: p.22.
d i s a p p e a r , w h a t w o u l d the w o r l d be like? In w h a t way w o u l d the a n i m a l s see the w o r l d ? J ?I n a b u r n e d o u t s u m m e r , I t r y to see w i t h - o u t w o r d s / a s they do. B u t I live t h r o u g h a web of l a n g u a g e " .2 6
IV. Towards a new mythology
2'
U l t i m a t e l y , the question c o n c e r n i n g the new r e l a t i o n s h i p be- tween n a t u r e a n d m a n is whether r a t i o n a l i t y alone can realize the n o t i o n o f h u m a n i t y , whether there can ever be a n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c r a t i o n a l i t y . T h a t this has l a t e l y been called i n t o question w i t h i n - c r e a s i n g frequency is no secret. B u t o b v i o u s l y t h i s p o s i t i o n is not g e n e r a l l y s h a r e d . In one of the last L a n g V e r l a g catalogues (III,
1988) I f o u n d an entry for a book by G r e g o r P a u l : Mythos. Philoso- phie und Rationalität. T h e brochure says the f o l l o w i n g a b o u t the b o o k ' s content:
1) n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c r a t i o n a l i t y is an i n d i s p e n s a b l e regen- erative idea, especially today. F o r i t is, m o r e so t h a n any p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n a l t e r n a t i v e s , b e t t e r s u i t e d to pro- m o t e a n d realize the idea of a general h u m a n i t y . 2) P h i l o s o p h i z i n g is m o r e r a t i o n a l a n d , i n this regard m o r e c o n d u c i v e to the interests o f h u m a n i t y t h a n m y - t h o l o g i z i n g . P h i l o s o p h i z i n g is g e n e r a l l y to be given preference over m y t h o l o g i z i n g " .
T h i s appears to be a late a n d o u t d a t e d r e f u t a t i o n of P . B . S h e l - ley's Defense of Poetry. T h e a r g u m e n t s b r o u g h t forward have a l - r e a d y been reduced ad absurdum by the r o m a n t i c s . Poets w o u l d no
2 6J u d i t h W r i g h t , " S u m m e r " , i n : Phantom Dwelling, L o n d o n , 1985, p . 44.
2' H e r e m y t h is used i n the sense of R i c h c u d C h a s e ' s definition as a f o r m of n a r r a t i v e of a r c h e t y p i c a l s y m b o l s . T h e m y t h - m a k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p to the w o r l d is b y n o m e a n s r e c t r i c t e d to the "unconscious a r t i s t i c process" of n a t u r e . See R . W e i m a n n , Phantasie und Nachahmung. D r e i S t u d i e n z u m V e r h ä l t n i s von D i c h t u n g , U t o p i e u n d M y t h o s , H a l l e , 1970, p . 142. W e i m a n n ' s ( m a r x i s t ) a t t i t u d e towards literature is based u p o n the d o g m a o f i c o n o c l a s m : L i t e r a t u r e must b e the m a r k of s o c i a l reality. M y t h , o n the o t h e r h a n d , is for W e i m a n n the e x p r e s s i o n of h u m a n matter-of-fact i n a n e n i g m a t i c w o r l d . T h u s he speaks of i l l u s i o n " w h i c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y " , was a b s o l u t e a n d believed" (p. 11).
longer argue this way today. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e to r a t i o n a l i t y is not i r r a t i o n a l i t y . W e are more i n c l i n e d to c a l l the opposite or s u p p l e - m e n t a r y p o s i t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y s o m e t h i n g on the order o f i m a g i n a - t i o n , i n t u i t i o n , c r e a t i v i t y . R o m a n t i c s have always held these q u a l i - ties up against scientists' m e c h a n i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y . T h e y viewed the poet as creator, and m a n y i m p o r t a n t poets today t h i n k of t h e m - selves as m y t h - m a k e r s . T h e y k n o w t h a t only in a m y t h o l o g i c a l context are they able to give f o r m a n d sense to the s u b o r d i n a t e d chaos of the w o r l d . T h u s , it has been determined repeatedly t h a t one of the essential qualities o f m o d e r n i s t poetry is the search for a new m y t h o l o g y .
T h i s is especially true of m o d e r n poets who believe t h a t po- e t r y ' s function is to create r i t u a l s analogous to r e l i g i o n .2 8 In this way they seek to restore the lost contact w i t h the a r c h e t y p i c a l powers of b e i n g . P o e t r y c o n t r i b u t e s to this process i n a s m u c h as it induces a new balance of the powers i n nature a n d the cosmos w h i c h m a n has destroyed. T h u s , m a n y authors see p o e t r y as an ersatz for religion, or even as a new r e l i g i o n itself. It teaches us to see the w o r l d as it r e a l l y is, r u l e d by antagonistic powers, light a n d darkness, rise and fall, b i r t h a n d d e a t h . E v e n p a i n and suffering are i m p o r t a n t parts of life, w h i c h , f r o m the b e g i n n i n g , is a process towards death, b u t h w h i c h a l w a y s bears new life.
V . Distrust of Natural Science
T h e other side of the r e t u r n to a m y t h i c a l w o r l d view is the c o m p l e m e n t a r y deprecation o f the n a t u r a l sciences because they destroyed the m y t h . T h i s can be i l l u s t r a t e d very well by u s i n g as e x a m p l e s certain p o e m s w h i c h deal w i t h the first m a n n e d m o o n - l a n d i n g of J u l y 20, 1969.
T h e authors are not alone i n their c r i t i c a l distance t o w a r d s t h i s event of the century. N a t u r a l scientists were also very c r i t i - cal o f this p a r t i c u l a r step i n t o space, a n d their c r i t i c i s m was a i m e d
2 8K a r l H e i n z G ö l l e r . " T o w a r d s a New M y t h o l o g y : T h e P o e t r y of T e d H u g h e s , E n g l i s h P o e t L a u r e a t e " , i n : Z e s z y t y N a u k o w e U n i w e r s y t e t u Jagielloriskiego. K r a k o w , 1990, p p . 100-106.
at n e a r l y all facets of the m u l t i - b i l l i o n d o l l a r u n d e r t a k i n g . T h e negative reaction of m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d poets to the m o o n l a n d i n g was by no means easily foreseeable. E v e n today m a n y b e l i e v e t h a t it is the d u t y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of poets to praise m a n ' s great achievements i n p a n e g y r i c poems. T h e first m o o n l a n d i n g was one such achievement. It appeared that a new phase of the development of h u m a n i t y h a d b e g u n . M a n o b v i o u s l y h a d crossed borders w h i c h appeared to be fixed by m a n ' s own physis a n d by physics. W a s the r e a c t i o n o f poets u n a n i m o u s l y p o s i t i v e or e n t h u s i a s t i c ? N o t at a l l . M a n y w e l l - k n o w n a u t h o r s were s c e p t i - cal,expressed uncertainty, a n d even i n d i c a t e d the step into space.
H o w can we account for this s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y reaction to t h e m o o n l a n d i n g ? T h e s o c i o l o g i s t M a x W e b e r2 9 describes the process o f t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the L a t e M i d d l e Ages to our p e r i o d as a g r a d u a l replacement o f m y t h by reason. F o r people i n the M i d d l e A g e s , the m e a n i n g o f a l l w o r l d l y a c t i v i t y was o b v i o u s a n d c o u l d be expressed i n images or m y t h s . T h e s e meanings a n d structures got lost i n the onset of P u r i t a n i s m , C a l v i n i s m and R a t i o n a l i s m . M a x W e b e r calls it the " d e m y s t i f i c a t i o n ' ' o f the w o r l d .
W . H a u g3 0 a p p l i e d this t e r m to l i t e r a t u r e . H e demonstrates h o w demystified t h i n k i n g i n a l l E u r o p e a n countries changed the w o r l d view in poetry. T h e p r e v i o u s l y accepted m e a n i n g of the w o r l d was n o w questioned. T h e d e m y s t i f i c a t i o n process led to a separa- t i o n o f theological a n d scientific t r u t h .3 1 T h e o l d security p r o v i d e d by m y t h was lost. A desire for the r e t u r n of lost innocence over- s h a d o w s m u c h o f the r o m a n t i c l i t e r a t u r e . Wri l l i a m W o r d s w o r t h ' s
2 9S e e M a x W e b e r , Wissenschaft als Beruf B e r l i n , 1967. passim. F o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n of this p r i n c i p l e , see M a x W e b e r , Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Reli- gionssoziologie V o l . I T ü b i n g e n , 1963, " V o r b e m e r k u n g " , p p . 1-16.
3 0W a l t e r H a u g , " W a n d l u n g e n des F i k t i o n a l i t ä t s b e w u ß t s e i n s v o m h o h e n z u m s p ä t e n M i t t e l a l t e r " , i n : J a m e s F . P o a g , T h o m a s C . F o x , eds., Entzauberung
der Welt: Deutsche Literatur 1200-1500, T ü b i n g e n , 1989.
31 R i c h a r d J . U t z , Literarischer Nominalismus im Spätmiitelalter: Eine Untersuchung zu Sprache, Charakter Zeichnung und Struktur in Geoffrey Chaucers ''Trilus and Criseyde'\ F r a n k f u r t a. M . , B e r n , New Y o r k , P a r i s , 1990.
" T h e W o r l d is t o o m u c h w i t h u s "3 2 could be read a n d a n a l y z e d as an e x a m p l e o f t h i s .
T h e poets' voices themselves are even more d i s t i n c t t h a n the tenets o f i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y . A n e x e m p l a r y case is B a b e t t e Deutsches " T o the M o o n ' ' .3 3 It has often been s h o w n t h a t Amer- ican i d e n t i t y is above a l l based on m y t h , or as T h o m a s B a i l e y puts i t , o n "false h i s t o r i c a l b e l i e f s " .3 4 D u r i n g the 60's m a n y o f these beliefs were q u e s t i o n e d . A m e r i c a was i n v o l v e d i n t h e V i e t - n a m W a r . T h e basic p r i n c i p l e s o f A m e r i c a n i d e n t i t y were s u d d e n l y derided a n d s p r u n e d , as e.g. manifest destiny, s u p r e m a c y o f the white race, p r i m a c y o f the N o r d i c s , frontier a n d the free W e s t , the rags-to-riches d r e a m .3 5
T h u s B a b e t t e D e u t s c h takes her s t a n d . She opposes fervently W h i t m a n ' s c l a i m t h a t 2 0 t h century poetry has no o t h e r func- t i o n t h a n to depict facts, scientific and otherwise. W i t h t o t a l i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n she quotes W h i t m a n ' s effusive e x c l a m a t i o n i n
" S o n g o f M y s e l f " H u r r a h for positive science! l o n g l i v e exact d e m o n s t r a t i o n " .3 6
In her p o e m , " T o the M o o n " 3' D e u t s c h i n d i c t s the v i o l e n c e done to the m o o n . A f t e r t h e m o o n l a n d i n g , the m o o n w i l l never again be w h a t i t was before. T h e poet fears t h a t the m o o n w i l l be an unsung v i c t i m i n the future. She i n d i c t s the loss o f m y t h o l o g y s u r r o u n d i n g the m o o n for w h i c h there is no replacement. T h e w o r l d has lost s o m e t h i n g i r r e t r i e v e a b l e because o f the m o o n l a n d i n g . It has become poorer.
D e u t s c h ' s p o e m w i l l c e r t a i n l y provoke t w o f o l d , p r o b a b l y c o n -
3 2W i l l i a m W o r d s w o r t h , " T h e W o r l d is t o o m u c h w i t h us", i n h i s Poems, in two Volumes and Other Poems 1800-1807, e d . J a r e d C u r t i s , N e w Y.ovk, 1983, p . 150.
3 3B a b e t t e D e u t s c h , " T b t h e M o o n , 1969", i n R o b e r t V a s D i a s , e d . . Inside Outer Space: New Poems of the Space Age, New Y o r k , 1970, p p . 61-62.
3 4T h o m a s A . B a i l e y , " T h e M y t h m a k e r s of A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y " , i n : Myth and American Experience, eds. N i c h o l a s C o r d s a n d P a t r i c k G e s t e r , E n c i n o , C a . . 1978, p p . 1-16, here: p . 1.
35 Cf. B a i l e y , p . l .
3 6 W a l t W h i t m a n , Leaves of Grass e d . a n d i n t r o d . by C a r l S a n d b u r g , n . p . , 1921, r e p r . 1944, " S o n g o f M y s e l f ' , 23, p . 57.
3 7C f . f n 33.
t r a d i c t o r y r e a c t i o n s . T h e s a m e is true o f a second p o e m o n the same subject, W y s t a n H u g h A u d e n ?s " M o o n L a n d i n g " .3 8 A u d e n is c e r t a i n l y one o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t E n g l i s h - A m e r i c a n p o e t s o f the century, a n d his v i e w o f the first m o o n l a n d i n g s h o u l d therefore be taken seriously.
T h e use o f the G e r m a n w o r d " m e n s c h l i c h " i n the second s t a n z a is a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w h a t A u d e n has i n v i e w . T h e o b v i o u s m o t i v e s b e h i n d the conquest o f the m o o n are, i n A u d e i r s o p i n i o n , a n y t h i n g but p r a i s e w o r t h y . F o r h i m , the l o u d c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e success- ful a d v e n t u r e is a p h a l l i c t r i u m p h , whereby phallic also i n c l u d e s prepubescent a s s o c i a t i o n s . T h o s e responsible for the n o i s e , i.e., W e r n e r v o n B r a u n i : C o . , are mere babblers w h o are n o t t o be t a k e n seriously.
T h e tone o f the p o e m reveals t h a t the a u t h o r a p p r o a c h e s his subject i r o n i c a l l y . F o r h i m t h e m o o n l a n d i n g is not as w o n d e r f u l as t h e rest o f the w o r l d t h i n k s i t to be. F r o m the m o m e n t m a n first drew sparks f r o m flintstone, the m o o n l a n d i n g was j u s t a m a t t e r o f t i m e . N o t h i n g has c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y for A u d e n . H e s t i l l sees the m o o n as t h e queen o f the heavens; her ' ' o l d m a n " (the m a n - i n - t h e - m o o n ) is c o m p r i s e d , t h a n k G o d , of gravel a n d n o t o f p r o t e i n ; a n d he s t i l l v i s i t s the a u t h o r i n h i s A u s t r i a n c o u n t r y house. T h e m a n - i n - t h e - m o o n ' s message has a basic m e a n i n g for A u d e n : i r r e v e r e n c e , h y b r i s is worse t h a n s u p e r s t i t i o n .
B u t w h a t does i t m a t t e r ? A u d e n concludes none t o o s e r i o u s l y . O u r a p p a r a t n i k s w i l l c o n t i n u e i n the future to raise t h e h a v o c we c a l l h i s t o r y , a n d we c a n o n l y p r a y t h a t there w i l l also c o n t i n u e t o be artists, cooks a n d saints w h o m a k e the w o r l d t o l e r a b l e .
VI. Conclusion
In c o n c l u s i o n I s h o u l d like t o say t h a t p o e t r y can a n d w i l l be a factor for t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a new w o r l d - p i c t u r e . T h e s u b j e c t s I have suggested are g o o d e x a m p l e o f the relevance o f t h e genre
3 8W y s t a n H u g h A u d e n , " M o o n L a n d i n g " , i n : Collected Poems, e d . E d w a r d M e n d e l s o n , L o n d o n , 1976, p p . 632-3.
and of l i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p in general. T h i s is g o o d to k n o w after we have been t r y i n g for decades to j u s t i f y this "useless a c a c l e m i a " . as it has been c a l i e d .
Y o u n g people i n p a r t i c u l a r are b e i n g m i s g u i d e d to underesti- mate the g l o b a l crisis, to internalize a drop-out m e n t a l i t y which contributes no help, except that it can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a s y m p - t o m of the current crisis itself. We must not leave the p r o b l e m of ecology to the cranks, the nuts and the sects. It is far t o o i m p o r - tant for t h a t . W e m u s t also oppose the c l a i m o f p o l i t i c a l parties and ideologies w h i c h w i l l m o n o p o l i z e the issue at h a n d .
E c o l o g y is for e v e r y b o d y . It belongs in the c l a s s r o o m a n d the lecture halls. T h e t e a c h i n g goal s h o u l d be the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t na- ture has its o w n rights w h i c h are independent f r o m the m e a n i n g of nature to m a n . B u t it should also become clear t h a t e n v i r o n - mental p r o t e c t i o n based on ethical m o t i v a t i o n serves t h e interests of m a n . E c o l o g y s h o u l d be recognised as e v e r y b o d y ' s business and e v e r y b o d y ' s duty. It has to be e v e r y b o d y or n o b o d y .
