The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to
Imperialism as Reflected in two Documents*
By Abdul-Hadi Hatbi, Mashhad, Iran
The decade precedmg the Fhst World War marks the culmmation of
a series of serious and organized activities on the part of Westem impe¬
rialism manifested in the forms of power straggles, pohtical and economic
rivalries, alliances, tactics and strategies, and finally invasions of power¬
less countries. To this general pattern the Muslim world as a great target
for penetration, encroachment, exploitation, and invasion was not an ex¬
ception. The rise of Germany as a new imperialistic forco seriously threat¬
ened the rival European powers, i. e. Britain, France, and Russia, eco¬
nomically, industrially, and mihtarily. This fact gave birth to agreements
such as the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale of 1904, the Anglo-Russian
Convention of 1907, the Russo-German Potsdam Convention of 1911, and
other agreements and alhances which subsequently resulted in the Franco-
Spaihsh occupation of Morocco, the Anglo-Russian invasion of Iran,
the Itahan mihtary expedition to Libya in 1911, and the Balkan Wars in
1912.1
Among these European actions, the Itahan occupation of Libya seems
to have attracted more attention and have received more antipathies in
* Many sincere thanks and appreciations are due to Mr. Abdol Hossein
Habbi, the Head of the Majlis Library, Tehran, for bringing to my attention Shaykh al-Sharl'ah's proclamation. A summary of this article was presented
before the 30th Congress of the Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa
held in Mexico City in August 3-—8, 1976. I would hereby like to thank my
colleagues in the conference for giving precious comments, for sharing my
appreciation of the documents discussed, and for encouraging me to publish
them in an article. Finally, thanks to all the staff members of the University
Library, Cambridge, England, and to those of the Hoover Institute Library,
Stanford University, Stanford, Califomia, for their kind cooperation in find¬
ing the materials needed. The British Public Record Office documents are
cited here thanks to the permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery
Office.
' Cf , inter alia, Cobn J. Hale: The Great Illttsion 1900—1914. New York
1971, pp. 226—84; on the Potsdam Convention see G. P. GoocH and H. Tem-
peblby [eds.]: British Documents on the Origins of the War 1898 — 1914.
Vol. X, Part I : The Near and Middle East on the Eve of the War. London 1936, passim.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 373
the Mushm world than others. This was perhaps due to the extraordinary
propagandist campaign undertaken by the Ottoman government and its
"vigorous denunciation of Italy's action in practicaUy the entire conti¬
nental, and especially the British, press."* The press and periodical ht¬
erature of the Mushm world in that period well expresses the extent of
the public resentment against the Italian action in Libya.^ Because of
the Anglo-Russian invasion of Iran about the same time, the Iraiüan
press together with political and rehgious circles both from within and
without the country made common cause with the Libyans and, in their
condemnation of the Itahan action, they expressed sympathy for the
Libyans.* This opposition movement was substantially led and support¬
ed by the Iranian clerical residents of Iraq.
The Persian 'ulamä (rehgious leaders) residing in Iraq do not seem
to have shown a noticeable reaction to the invasion of other Islamic
lands such as, for instance, that of Morocco. The vast Ottoman propa¬
ganda against Italy, of course, explains part of the reason for the 'ulamä'a
leading part in this opposition campaign, but the most logical and force¬
ful cause was the coincidence of the two invasions. In response to the
grievances of their fellow-citizens, the Persian 'ulamä not only rose a-
gainst the Anglo-Russian invasion of Iran but they also raised their
voices in condemnation of Italy.
One should not also lose sight of the fact that during that period the
idea of Pan-lslamism, which had survived the Young Turks Constitu¬
tional Revolution of 1908, had been given particular attention by the
Young Turks government. In a secret meeting of the Armual Congress
of the Central Committee of Union and Progress held in Saloihca in Sep¬
tember and October 1911, the Young Turks even formally decided that,
"A general congress ought to be convoked at Constantinople every
year ; delegates from all the Moslem countries in the world ought to
be invited to take part in this congress, which should assemble at
Noury Osmanieh in Constantinople. Questions of general interest to
the Moslem population of the world should be discussed and voted
upon at this congress. The irütiative must be taken in forming
branches of the Committee of Union and Progress in all countries
inhabited by Moslems, and especially in Russia and in Persia."^
^ F.O. 424/260, Turkey: Annual Report, 1911, Sir G. Lowtheb to Sir Ed¬
ward Grey, p. 39.
^ See, for instance Al-'llm 2 (1911), passim; Al-Manär 14 (1911), passim;
Muhammad Iqbäl: Bäng-i Darä. Lahore 1968, pp. 352—53; idem. Poems
from Iqbal. Transi. by V. G. Kiebnan. London 1955, p. 16; Habl al-Matm,
Jan. 29, 1912, pp. 8—15; Chihranamä, Nov. 22, 1911, p. 4.
< Cf Al-'llm 2 (1911), passün; Habl al-Matm, 1911—1912, passün.
5 F.O. 371/1263, Dec. 21, 1911 ('51124).
374 Abdul-Hadi Hatbi
The Young Turks found the Persian 'ulamä to be a very useful instru¬
ment for their brand new pohcy from which emerged the Pan-Islamic
mission of Ziya Bey to the shrine cities of Iraq.* The 'ulamä took advan¬
tage of the situation and, in the name of Muslim unity, rose against the
invaders and laid, of comse, a particular emphasis on the Persian situa¬
tion.'
What the Itahans did in Libya, how the the Libyans responded to the
Itahan occupation, what happened in Iran after the Anglo-Russian in¬
vasion, and what reaction appeared on the part of rehgious and pohtical
parties and circles are all beyond the central scope of our present study ;
interested students of the subject may consult the relevant somces.* Om
main concern here is to present two documents which are of paramoimt
importance as far as the study of the 1911 foreign occupation of Iran and
Libya is concemed. These two documents are proclamations which in¬
vite the masses to rise against the "invading infidels", and both appear¬
ed during the early months of 1912. One of them was composed by the
SanOsi leader, Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif (1873-1933), and the other one
by Mirzä Fath Alläh Shaykh al-Shari 'ah I?fahäni (1849-1920), a Persian
rehgious leader residing in Iraq during the period under consideration.
Sayyid Ahmad assumed the Sanüsi leadership in 1902 and enjoyed
considerable recognition among his people. He and his predecessors
strengthened their position through their close ties with the numerous
Süfi bases of the SanOsIyyah Order (zäwiyah) estabhshed openly or secret¬
ly throughout Tripolitania (hicluding Cyrenaica) and in several other
African and Middle Eastem countries. Depending on the intimate sup¬
port received from his people, Sajryid Ahmad continued his mihtant cam-
« See Chihranamä Jan. 31, 1911, pp. 7—11 and Nov. 22, 1911, pp. 2—5;
Revue du Monde Musulman 13 (1911), pp. 384—86.
' For more details consult Abdux-Hadi Haibi : Shi'ism and Constitu¬
tionalism in Iran: A Study of the Role Played by the Persian Residents of
Iraq in Iranian Politics. Leiden 1977.
' On the Italian occupation of Libya and the Sanüsis' involvement see,
inter alia, Wiixiam C. Askew : Europe and Italy's Acquisition of Libya 1911 —
1912. Durham, N.C. 1942; E. E. Evans-Pbitchabd : The Sanusi of Cyrenaica.
Oxford 1973; Nicola A. Ziadeh: Sanüslyah: A Study of a Revivalist Move¬
ment in Islam. Leiden 1958; Muhammad Fu'ln Shukei: Al-Sanüslyyah: Din
wa-Dawlah. Cairo 1948, and the ample references cited in these works. On the
Anglo-Russian invasion of Iran consult Frauz Kazemzadeh: Russia and
Britain in Persia, 1864 — 1914: A Study in Imperialism. New Haven 1968,
p. 511ff.; IsHTiAQ Ahmad: Anglo-Iranian Relations 1905 — 1919. London
1974, p. 185fr. ; Robebt A. McDaniel: The Shuster Mission and the Per¬
sian Constituiional Revolution. Minneapolis 1974; E. G. Bbowne: Nämahäyi
az Tabriz. Tehran 1972; Haibi: Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran, pp.
114—24.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 375
paign against Italy until 1918 despite the Ottoman compromise with
Italy in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1912. Sayyid Ahmad was succeeded
by Sayyid Muhammad Idris in 1918.®
As for Shaykh al-Shari'ah I^fahänl, he was a distinguished and well
recognized Shi'i expert of religious studies. He taught students of Islamic
jmisprudence and performed religious functions in Najaf for many years.
He was actively involved both in Iranian and Iraqi pohtics as a religious
leader. During the 1920 Revolution of Iraq Shaykh al-Sharl'ah played
a leading role in the Iraqi national struggle for independence from the
British."
Due to the fact that both men were widely recognized leaders of their
respective communities and functioned as the main effective organs of
public opinion, their proclamations may be considered as representative
expressions of the Libyan and Iranian people's response to Western im¬
perialism. They are evidence of the common cause which existed between
the two Islamic nations at that particular junctme and clearly demon¬
strate the important role played by rehgious authorities in Libya and
Iran. They are also a manifestation of the responses of these two Muslim
nations to the Young Turks Pan-Islamic appeal. For these reasons, we
are justified in placing a great importance on both documents and in
reproducing them here in an English translation.
Here then, a few words of explanation about the two proclamations,
the situation in which they were issued, and the extent of their relation
to each other may be of interest. In Libya, as it was expected, people
did not tolerate the invaders. One may come across some pro-ItaUan
literature in which the Tmkish rule in Libya was attacked. A good ex¬
ample of this type of writing is a long manifesto, signed by 108 men who
were supposed to be Libyan citizens ; it was published some time after the
Itahan invasion. In this manifesto both the Tmks and the Itahans were
equally considered foreigners. However, foreigners of the type of the
British and the French who were then ruhng Egypt and Tunisia respec-
' Fore more iaformation consult the references given in note no. 8. Detail¬
ed accounts on the zämyah organizations can also be found in H. Duvey-
bieb: Le confrerie musvlmane de Sidi Mohammed ben Ali es-Senousi. Paris
1886, p. 57£f. and Theodobe Lothbop Stoddaed: Hädir al-'Älam al-Ialäml,
Transi. by 'Ajjäj Ntjwayhij?, and extended by al-AmiB Shakib Abslän.
Cairo 1971, Vol. II, pp. 397—407.
On Shaykh al-Shari'ah Isfahäni's life and political activities consult
Al-'Irfän 6 (1921), pp. 196ff.; Faeiq MuzmB ÄL Fm'AWN: Al-Haqä'iq al-Nä-
si'ah fl l-Thawrah al-Iraqlyah sanat 1920. Baghdad 1952, pp. 352—53 and
passim; 'Abd Alläh Fahd al-NaeIsI: Dawr al-Shl'ah fl Tafawwur al-'Iräq
al-Slyasl al-Hadlth. Beir-ut 1973, passim; Ghassan R. Atiyyah : /rag 1908 —
1921: A Study in Political Development. Beirut 1973.
376 Abdul-Hadi Haibi
tively were praised, and the Itahans who were, in their opioion, better
than the British and French were portrayed as having been sent by God.
The manifesto also renounced al-Imäm Yahyä al-Zaydi of the Yemen
and al-Imäm Idris and caUed them "the chief belhgerents {ru'asä' al-
muhäribin)" .^^ Also we read some Arabic statements issued by the Ital¬
ians themselves in which the Turkish domination over Libya was harshly
criticized and Italy was called the Libyans' best friends.'*
Despite all this anti-Turkish propaganda, the Libyans strongly resent¬
ed the Italian occupation. We should take mto consideration the fact
that the very authenticity of the manifestoes such as that which was
just described and signed by the so called Jama 'at al-Tarabulusiyln may
be called into question because it seems quite improbable that the Libyan
Mushms not only approved of the domination of the non-Mushm Euro¬
peans over their territory but they also considered them as the gifts of
God. Even if we believe in their authenticity they cannot by any means
be considered as representative statements of the bulk of Mushm popu¬
lation of that country, because evidence is overwhelming that the Liby¬
ans were prepared to shed their blood in order to liberate then country
from the Itahans. In their mihtant campaign, of course, they were inspir¬
ed and instructed by the then SanOsi leaders, Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif
al-SanOsi (see notes 8-9).
A proclamation of jihäd (a Holy War) by the Sanüsi leader was ex¬
pected by foreign observers to be issued and to play a great role; it was
so anticipated before its issuance. According to the jomnal Al-Manär, the
German speciahsts in martial science beheved that Italy would not be
able to penetrate into Tripohtanian coasts for many reasons, one of which
was the possibility of the SanOsis' proclamation of a Holy War against
Italy.'* The proclamation which was issued on January 14, 1912 did not
of course prevent Italy from occupying Libya, but, in the words of the
TripoU correspondent of thcAgence ottomans, it "created a great impres¬
sion amongst the African Mussulmans who .. . [were] actively preparing
for war."'*
Many authors have expressly admitted the importance and influence
of the Sanüsi proclamation. G. F. Abbott who, as a journalist, was trav¬
elling in the area during the Tripolitanian war mentions that this "fervid proclamation" which was inscribed on a sUk banner "spurred the tribes-
" Min Jamä'at al-Taräbulustyin al-Muqimln fl l-Madlnah Taräbulua wa-
Hawällha ilä 'Umüm Ikhwänihim Sakanat al-Wa{an al-Taräbtdusl min al-
al-Bawädl wa-l-Hadar. N.d., n.p.
'2 G. F. Abbott: The Holy War in Tripoli. New York 1912, pp. 193—96.
13 Al-Manär 14 (1911), pp. 927—28.
" The Levant Herald and Eastem Express, Jan. 17, 1912, p. 1.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 377
men to greater exertion than ever and hence the increasing hordes of
warriors from the interiors. . .."'^ Another author, Muhammad Fu'äd
Shukei, says that the sük banner on which the jihäd proclamation was
inscribed was carried by the warriors from one tribe to the other especial¬
ly among the southern tribes. The proclamation, Shukei adds, "incited
wast numbers of holy warriors and volunteers to crowd into the Ottoman
and Arab army camps to take part in the jihäd."^^
The Sanüsi proclamation must have been published in many Arabic
newspapers and journals and translated into other Islamic languages
during that period, but we have been able to locate the Arabic text only
in Al-Manär." Since Iran was suffering the same tjrpe of Westem en¬
croachment as Libya was and the contents of the proclamation were
quite apphcable to the then Iranian situation, a Persian rendering of the
proclamation was published in Habl al-Matin in Iran only a few months
after the appearance of its original Arabic text in Libya.'* If we consider
the Al-Manär edition of the text complete and original, then the Persian
translation is not accurate and it is longer than the original text.
The Persian translator, Asif," paid particular attention to the dramati¬
zation of the proclamation by using many vigorous and inflammatory
expressions. His translation therefore, turned the proclamation into an
interesting piece of Persian revolutionary literatme of that period. We
read in the Persian text that "a single fight with the enemy is better than
a thousand visits to the shrine of Prophet Muhammad; one hour of vigi¬
lance in a [Holy] War is better than performing the Islamic pügrimage
(hajj) seventy times."*' This portion does not appear at all in the Arabic text. In the Arabic version there is a portion which reads : "whatever oc¬
curs WÜ1 not miss its mark and whatever misses its mark wül not hit
" Abbott, op.cit., p. 269.
" ShttkeI, op.oit., p. 136.
" Al-Manär 15 (Feb. 1912), pp. 109— 111. The title given to this proclama¬
tion seems likely to have been added by the editor of the Journal ; its original title is "For the Name of God, the Benefioient, the Merciful". [Den arabi¬
schen Text des Aufrufs nach der in der Kairiner Zeitung al-Mu'ayyad vom
9. Safar 1330 = 29. Januar 1912 erschienonen Fassung mit deutscher Über¬
setzung hat Ebich Grabpb: Der Aufruf des Scheichs der Senüslja zum
Heiligen Kriege. In: Der Islam 3 (1912), S. 141—50 veröffentlicht. E.W.]
" Habl al-Matin, July 1, 1912, pp. 9—11.
'° This name is not sufficiently known to us ; the same name appears under
one article on the problem of Pan-lslamism in Shams, a newspaper published
in Istanbul in the period under consideration; seo Shams, July 1911, pp. 2—3.
The Iranian Counsul-Goneral at Jiddah in late 1910 was named Ismä'il Äsif,
and he eoidd have been the same writer and translator; seo Revue du Monde
Musulman 19 (1912), p. 176.
»» Habl al-Matüi, July 1, 1911, p. 11.
378 Abdul-Hadi Haibi
[any target]. Death m a Holy War is the utmost goal of any intelhgent
man. ..." These words are translated into Persian as follows: "An im¬
potent strike cannot affect you. Oh! What kind of a good fortune [are
we in]? Facing the enemy and suffering death? Yes, martyrdom brings
honor to the behevers and it is their most ardent desire and utmost good
fortune."*' Compare also the following passages: the Arabic text reads
that, "Just imagine how much more [the significant task of jihäd is for]
the men whose martyrdom wül save their people, their women, and their
children ... from the captivity of the enemies." The same passage is
translated into Persian as follows: "[The jihäd warriors] are the brave
men who do not accept humiliation, abjectness, and plodding under the
poisonous dagger of Christians; they are men of zeal and noble descent
who would never allow their chaste women to be embraced by the
enemies."**
The reason for these dramatization on the part of the Persian trans¬
lator hes perhaps in the fact that the Iranian population was less pre¬
pared to respond to a caU for jihäd than the die-hard Arab tribesmen of
the North African deserts. Besides, the religious and pohtical leadership
in Iran was not as powerful as that in Libya; the Shi'i clerical world had
been divided over the measures brought up by the Persian Constitutional
Revolution of 1906. Therefore, in order to influence his Persian audience
with the idea of mihtancy in general and that of jihäd in particular, the
translator might have striven to use more stimulating and provocative
words and expressions.
In the proclamation, Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif has classified two groups
of the hadiths concenung jihäd: 1) those which threaten the jihäd evad¬
ers, and 2) those which promise good rewards to the Holy War fighters.
This classification is missing in the Persian text, although the main points
are generally conveyed. On the other hand, there are references in the
Persian translation to the second Cahph, 'Umar, and to the famous
hadith transmitter, Abü Hurayrah, despite their unpopularity with a
great majority of the Persian people; these references cannot be found
in the Arabic version. The latter change might have occmed due to an
omission on the part of the Al-lManär editor for space pmposes ; it is also
possible that those remarks were added only by the translator or the
editor of Habl al-Mathi in order to attract the sympathies of Sunni read¬
ers of this newspaper in Iran and especially in India where it enjoyed a
considerable readership. At any rate, we have based our translation on
the Arabic text of the proclamation.
" Ibid., p. 9.
" Ibid., p. 9.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 379
As for Shaykh al-Shari'ah Isfahäni's manifesto, this document, despite
its importance, has remained little known ; even the movement led by
the 'ulamä against the foreign invasions in Iran and Libya does not seem
to have secured the attention of the students of the period in question.
Therefore, a few words on the background of the problem are in order.
At the beginning of December 1911 Khuräsäni, then the greatest reh¬
gious leader of the Shi'ah*^ "issued a fatva proclaiming a holy war against
Italy, Russia, and England because of the Itahan action in Tripoh and
Russian and British action in Persia."** Led by the same mujtahid (reh¬
gious authority) and supported by the leaders of 200,000 armed tribes¬
men,*^ the 'ulamä of Iraq, including Shaykh al-Shari'ah, together with a
large number of supporters*' set out for Iran to offer their opposition to
the foreign invaders. In defiance of the sudden death that Khuräsäni
suffered,*' the 'ulamd'B expedition was not cancelled, though postponed.
On the New Year's Day of 1912 the 'ulamä, under the leadership of
Shaykh 'Abd AUäh Mazandaräni, and followed by more than 500 reh¬
gious students,** left Najaf and stopped in Käzimayn on their way to
Iran. There the 'ulamä formed an Executive Board and began to make
contact with authorities in several countries including Ottoman Tmkey,
Iran and India. They appealed to aU Muslims in the world by sending
numerous telegrams and pubUshing many manifestoes. They strongly
condemned the Italian action in Libya and the Anglo-Russian occupa¬
tion in Iran and made an appeal to all Mushms to rise against the in¬
vaders.*®
According to an official British document, a violent anti-foreign cam¬
paign was waged by the press in Iraq because of the issue of the 'ulamä's
first proclamation of a Holy War.*" It also gave rise to a considerable
fear on the part of the Persian government. While in Käzimayn, the
'ulamä were constantly mged by the Persian authorities to stop their ex-
'3 Tlie 'ulamä'a reaction to the foreign invasions of Iran and Libya has been
briefly discussed in Haibi: Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran, pp. 114—
24. A detailed study of this subject is also boing completed by the present
writer. For information on Khuräsäni consult Abdul-Hadi Haibi : Khurä¬
säni, Äkhünd Mullä Muhammad Käzim. In: EI^, vol. 5, pp. 61—2.
2* F.O. 424/250, Turkey: Annual Report, 1911, p. 36.
Sayyid Muhammad Hasan Äqä NajajfI QüchänI : Slyähät-i Sharq yä
Zindigl-Nämah-yi Äqä Najafl QüchänI. Mashhad 1972, p. 479.
A.S.A. Nizäm ax-Din-Zädah : Hujüm-i Rüs bi Iran va Iqdämät-i Ru'asä-
H Dtn dar Hifz-i Iran. Baghdad 1912, pp. 52—54.
" Al-'Ilni 2 (1912), 290—98, 338—42.
Nizäm al-Din-Zädah, op.cit., pp. 98—99.
Ibid., pp. 116—21 and passim.
F.O. 424/250, Turkey: Annual Report, 1911, p. 36.
380 Abdxjl-Hadi Haibi
pedition to Iran.*' The British and Russian authorities were also anxious
over the 'ulamä'a move and made a strenuous effort to suppress it. The
anti-foreign press campaign, therefore, was checked in Iraq "probably by
the vah [governor of Najaf] who promised to do what he could unoffici¬
ally in this direction".** The same Najaf governor who was accused of
having "forcibly extorted" the proclamation from Khuräsäni, was sum¬
moned to Baghdad to answer to this charge ;** and the Russian Consul-
General in Baghdad declared that he had proof of the governor's "guilt"
and that if necessary he would be wilhng to take part in the inquiry.**
In the meantime the 'ulamä issued many manifestoes and sent many
telegrams in confirmation of the proclamation of jihäd. This action of the
'ulamä caused The Levant Herald and Eastern Express to warn the
British that,
"The proclamation of a Holy War would not only afford as good an
excuse for loot as any other, but it would undoubtedly mobUize
forces of which it would be unwise to underrate the depth and
strength, especially at the moment when Mahomedan feeling is not
unnatmally moved by the many unfortunate comphcations which
have arisen in other parts of the Islamic world. From this point of
view we should strongly deprecate any hasty action being taken at
this juncture by the British Government."*^
The following British document indicates tho British sensitivity to the
'ulamä's anti-foreign propaganda and the obstacles they created to pre¬
vent the people from receiving the 'ulamä'a voice:
"Leading Mujteheds of Nejef sent a telegram to Sheikh of Moham-
marah** to be communicated to telegraph ofiice, and addressed a
threat to muUas [religious authorities] of Persia proclaming a holy
war against Russia and England. Sheilch, who was away in district,
withheld telegram until Mazandarän mujtehed ['Abd Alläh Mazan¬
daräni] . .. of Nejef telegraphed asking why it had been promulgat¬
ed. Sheikh informs me through his vizier that it was impossible for
him any longer to keep back the telegram from his religious heads,
but that he removed the name of England ; telegram was according¬
ly forwarded about four days ago, after three weeks' delay, and via
Behbehan, where line is down."*' '' Nizäm al-Din-Zädah, op.cit., passim.
32 F.Ö. 424/250, Turkey : Annual Report, 1911, p. 36. ^3 i^id., p. 36.
3* F.O. 424/229, Lowtheb to Grey, Constantinople, Dec. 18, 1911, No.
140 (355).
3^ The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, Jan. 18, 1912, p. 1.
3« Le. Shaykh Khaz'al (1863—1936], a loyal friend of the British and the
actual ruler of Khüzistän, Iran, for many years.
3' F.O. 416/51, Sir G. Babclay to Obey, Tehran, Jan. 8, 1912, No. 59 (26).
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperiahsm 381
Among the many statements released by the 'ulamä on this matter,
which has contributed to the Iranian revolutionary hterature, the procla¬
mation of Shaykh al-Shari'ah Isfahäni is the most comprehensive, sys¬
tematic, and coherent of all. This proclamation was published in Arabic
in Baghdad on the 14th of February, 1912. Less than two months later
it was translated into Persian and pubhshed in Iran. Unhke the Persian
translation of the Sanüsi proclamation, this translation is an abridged
version of the original. Both versions bear different titles; the Arabic
text is entitled "The Disclosure of the Situation and the Settlement of
the Dispute",** but the Persian translation has this heading: "On the
Indispensability of the Settlement of the EvU Disparity and Discord and
on the Necessity of Unity and Alhance on Preserving the Independence
of Islam and Eliminating Foreign Aggression".*' These titles, however,
seem to have been added by the editors of the proclamation ; its origi¬
nal title must have been "In the Name of God, the Beneficent, the
Merciful". In our translation of the proclamation, of course, we have
depended only on the Arabic text.
As far as the ideas expressed in the two documents are concemed one
may observe a number of similarities and differences, each of which had
its own significance at that juncture of the century. Both of the docu¬
ments addressed themselves to all Muslims in general and to the Muslims
whose lands were invaded by the foreigners in particular. Both al-Sanü-
81 and Shaykh al-Sharl'ah based theirj arguments on the Qur'än and
hadith and concluded that according to God's will the Mushms should
put an end to the encroachments of the unbehevers. The authority of
the two men as religious leaders was bound to be called into question by
the invading powers and this of course woiUd mean a great loss for the
Islamic conduct of the nation. Consequently, they both felt rehgiously
responsible to defend the territory of Islam through mobilizing the Mus¬
lims against the invaders.
Some diflferences in the documents also exist; the two signatories of
the proclamations belonged to different branches of Islamic faith: al-
Sanüsi was Sunni and Shaykh al-Shari'ah was Shl'I. Al-SanOsi made
references to the hadiths which have been highly regarded by the Sunnis
such as those transmitted by Anas Ibn Mälik (d. A.D. 711) or those col¬
lected by Mushm Ibn al-Hajjäj al-Nlshäpürl (d. A.D. 875). Shaykh al-
Shari'ah, on the other hand, supported his arguments by quoting widely
reputed Shi'i authorities such as Muhammad Ibn Ya'qOb al-Kulaynl
(d. A.D. 941). Both leaders called all Muslims for unity, but each of them
3* Sh&ykh &l-Sha.Ti'&hIafa,häm: Kashf Häl iva-Qaf' Maqäl. Baghdad 1912.
*" Habl al-Matm, April 1 (sic), 1912, pp. 7—8.
382 ABDtTL-HADi Haibi
expressed special concern for his own country. Al-Sanüsl, for instance,
said: "This message is. .. to all Muslims. .. especially to the people of
all regions which are occupied by the enemies of the [Islamic] rehgion
(i.e. the Italians)". But Shaykh al-Shari'ah, being an Iranian subject and
fighting for the independence and integrity of Iran, made a special case
about his country. With regard to the language and style of writing one
can clearly notice that al-Sanüsi's Arabic is styhstieaUy superior to that
of Shaykh al-Shari'ah simply because Arabic was the native language of
the former and a second language of the latter.
The principal difierence between the two proclamations is that al-Sanü¬
si's statement is more precise, exphcit, and categorical in tone and ex¬
pression; its subject matter is limited to the problem of jihäd and the
Libyans' urgent need to repel the invading foreigners. He uses direct and
inflammatory language throughout his appeal in order to persuade his
people to join the jihäd camps. He described the situation for his people
in this manner : the lives of innocent Mushms have been endangered by
the infidels ; the only solution to this disaster is to remove them by fight¬
ing a Holy War against the foreigners ; the Mushms who are killed in the
war will be considered martyrs and those live victoriously will enjoy
great rewards both in this world and in the Hereafter. But upon those who
tmn their back on the jihäd "God cmses and deprives them from His
mercy and prepares for them a painful torment." Finally, al-Sanüsi
promised that rehef and a happy ending were near, and announced that
"God wilhng, I myself am going to join you very soon." He clearly
mged his people to fight the enemy even if their own mUitary com¬
manders would refuse to do so. Thus al-Sanüsi left no room for misunder¬
standing of the urgent natme of the jihäd. It was perhaps due partly to
the decisive tone of the proclamation and its concentration on the
subject of jihäd that it played an effective role during the Itahan occu¬
pation of Libya.
Shaykh al-Shari'ah's statement, on the other hand, is not hmited to
the problem of jihäd. His approach to a Holy War is expressed in the doc¬
ument in the forms of rhetorical questions such as "0 Iranians! Are you
still patient despite the ignominy and abasement you are suffering?
What ignominy is greater for you than the invasion of your cities by so
barbarous a government as that of Russia?" He deals, in ten items,
with aspects of Western imperiahsm such as the exportation of their
goods, their establishment of rehgious, educational, and sanitary organ¬
izations, and their conclusion of economic treaties with the Mushm coun¬
tries. He particularly condemns the Itahan action in Libya and that of
the Russians in Iran, and finally he urges all Muslims not to tolerate
these agressive powers.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 383
Here is a translation of the two proclamations :
I
The Call of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanüsi
for a Holy War Against the Italians in Tri-
pohtania and Barqah*": A Proclamation
Distributed Among the Tribes
In the Name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful
May God bless our master Muhammad, his family, and his companions,
and grant them salvation. This message is coming from a servant of God,
may He be praised, Ahmad Ibn al-Sayyid Muhammad al-Sharif Ibn al-
Sayyid 'All al-SanüsI al-KhitäbI[sic] al-HasanI al-ldrisi, [and is addres¬
sed] to all those Mushms who are acquainted with him, especially to [the
people] of all the regions which are occupied by the enemies of the [Is¬
lamic] religion. Praise be to God, the powerful, the almighty ; blessing and
peace be to Muhammad who prolonged the might of rehgion by sharp
swords, and to his supporters who performed the task [entrusted to them
by this verse of the Qur'än :] "Fight those of the disbelievers who are near to you" (9:123), and sincerely fulfilled their promise with God and tasted
the sweetness of martyrdom because of their love for retmning to the
endming paradise from which they had been separated.
After presenting my best regards, and praying for [the Muslims'] stead¬
fastness and calling them to steadfastness, [I would hke to bring to] your
attention that [the Qur'än says :] "Lo ! God has bought from the behevers
their hves and their wealth because the Garden will be theirs. . .Rejoice
then in your bargain ...." (9:111) Fight [the disbelievers] and seek God's
given victory by swords and [enjoy] God's sovereign power in the Garden.
Listen to God's warning concerning the submission of your life which ha."
been sold to Him for the huge profit that He has promised in this state¬
ment: "Shall I show you a transaction that wül save you from painful
doom? You should believe in God and His messanger, and should fight
for the cause of God with your wealth and your lives. It is better for you
if you could but know. He wül forgive your sins and bring you into
Gardens in which rivers flow, and into pleasant dwellings in Gardens of
Eden. That is the supreme triumph. And [He wül give you another
blessing] which you love: help from God and present victory. Give
good tidings 0 Muhammad to believers." (61:10-13)
Avoid the torment and destruction with which God has threatened
those who pmsue a temporising pohcy [at the time of a Holy War] ; He
Barqah is the name of the eastem part of Libya. Its important city is
Benghazi.
27 ZDMGlSO/2
384 Abdul-Hadi Haibi
says: "What ails you that when it is said to you: Gro forth in the way of
God, you are bowed down to the ground with heaviness. Do you take
pleasure in the life of this world rather than in the Hereafter? The com¬
fort of the hfe of the world is but httle in the Hereafter. If you do not go
forth He wül afflict you with a painful destruction, and wUl choose in¬
stead of you a folk other than you. You cannot harm Him at all. God is
able to do all things." (9:38-39)
[0 Muslims !] Know that the instant of death is determined ; no one
who rushes into battle wül face death unless the predestined moment
of death has arrived. Therefore, no lofty palace may be able to prevent
the Angel of Death from taking the hves of its residents. Whatever oc¬
curs WÜ1 not miss its mark and whatever misses its mark wül not hit [any
target]. Death in a Holy War is the utmost goal of any intelligent man
because such death is the real life ; the most perfect rank is based on one's
being sustained [through his death] by God's blessing in the presence of
God. Therefore, those who withdraw from this world in favor of the
strength of the [Ottoman] Cahphate, wül welcome such death because of
the great benefit which it will bring to them. Just imagine how much more
[such task is urgent for] the men whose martjrrdom [in the Holy War]
WÜ1 save their people, their women, their chüdren, and whatever is under
their protection from the captivity of the enemies !
[0 Mushms!] lüiow that the Garden is situated under the shade of the
swords and that death for a martyr is but a horse of which he is passion¬
ately fond. The martyr wiU feel the fragrant breeze of the Garden and,
whüe having done his utmost [in fighting the enemies], he wül see the
nymphs of the Garden (al-hür) presenting themselves to him. This is what
Anas Ibn al-Nadir said during the battle of Uhud*' [which apphes to the
situation we face today] : "How wonderful the fragrant breeze of the
Garden is; truly I find it beneath the Uhud." He then plunged himself
into the army of the polytheists [and fought bravely untU] he was killed.
The enemy's numerous troops and equipment should not keep you
from the war ; the power of faith wül destroy every army. The encamped
troops of the enemy arc already shattered. Despite the fact that their
commanders appear as great men their wills and decisions are all week
and womanish. God has promised victory and strength to His helpers,
and wretchedness and dispersion to His enemies; therefore, you may
never turn your back on the enemies because of the feebleness of some
of your commanders. If men fight for the cause of God, He will certainl}'
confirm His promise and wül strengthen the fighting army.
" This was one of the Battles fought imder the command of Prophet
Muhammad himself in A.D. 625.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 385
[O Muslims !] Fight in the Holy War even with a great hardship ; prove
[yom identity and competence] if only once. In the battles [fought by
Prophet Muhammad the procedure was such that] the banners were car¬
ried among several groups; whenever a commander was killed another
commander would have carried the baimer in order to reach the goal. In
the hadith [many] references are made to [the duty of] undertaking a Holy
War hand in hand with leaders. Your hearts should not be broken because
of your being small in number, and you should not be overcome by fear
of hmited assistance. Every one of you should fight even though alone,
expecting the victory that God has promised. [On this occasion] God,
the exalted, says : "How often a httle group has overcome a mighty group
by God's permission!" (2:249) The hadith [hteratme] which threatens
those who forsake a Holy War and which encourages people to take an
active part is too voluminous to be throughly known. [The following two
groups of haditha form only a few passages concerning the subject] :
1. [Some haditha which threaten a Holy War evader] : "If you involve
yom^elves in exchanging goods and capital assets and hold on the tail
of yom cattle and remain content with sowing and forsake a Holy War,
God will cause you to be overcome by a degradation which wül not be
removed from you untü you retum to yom rehgious [duty]." That is to
say, it is obhgatory for you to fight against the enemies, to treat them
mthlessly, to elevate Islam, to give your support to this rehgion and its
adherents, to enhance the word of God, and [finally] to humiliate the
infidels and their realm.
Another hadith says: "Trxdy, the abandomnent of a Holy War is con¬
sidered as renunciation of rehgion", because one who returns to some¬
thing is bound to have aheady abandoned it.** These are [the unfavor¬
able consequences of] the abandonment of non-specific Holy Wars {al-
jihäd al-kifüH). Just imagine how much more may be said against the
abandonment of a Holy War which is specifically waged to assaü our ene¬
mies ! When one who shirks going to such a Holy War is no longer Mushm,
what punishment may be considered for those who enter a deal with the
infidels on ephemeral things resulting in the massacre of the Mushm
people, and for those who register themselves in the infidels' army!
It is reported by Anas, may God be pleased with him, that the mes¬
senger of God [Muhammad], may God bless him and grant him salva¬
tion, said: "By taking part in a mihtary expedition for the cause of God
By this statement Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif may have meant that belief
in Islam is equal to and identical with fighting a Holy War. Therefore, the
abandonment of a Holy War authomatically means the abandonment of
religion. Disregard of a Holy War would indicate that the individual has al¬
ready abandoned his religion.
27«
386 Abdul-Hadi Haibi
one renders all his obedience to Him", therefore, [in the words of the
Qur'än:] "Whosoever will, let him beheve, and whosoever will, let him
disbelieve. Lo ! We have prepared fire for disbehevers." (18:30) Anas goes
on to say that the messenger of God was asked :' 'Who would cease to go
to a Holy War after this hadith we just heard from you?" The Prophet
answered: "Those whom God curses and deprives of His mercy and for
whom He prepares a painful torment [would turn their back on a Holy
War]". There will appear some people who, when the Day of Judgment
is to be expected (äkhir al-zamän), will not participate in Holy Wars;
[conceming these people] God has made a vow which will never be
broken: "God's servants will see them suffering punishments the like of
which no person in the world has ever experienced." It is also reported
by Muslim, [the well known hadith collector,] that, "Anyone who dies
without having fought [in the cause of God] or without having talked
himself into doing so, will be considered as an adherent to a rami¬
fication of hypocricy."
2. [The second group of hadiths concerning the Holy Wars encourages
people to participate in them; for instance:] In answer to the question
of who the best person is, the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him
salvation, said: "Any behever who devotes his hfe and wealth to the cau¬
se of God." On the same occasion some people asked the Prophet: "What would make God laugh about His servant?" The Prophet answered : "His
servant's plunging his brave hands into the enemy's [throat]." The Pro¬
phet also said : "In paradise there are one hundred different ranks reserv¬
ed for the fighters in the Holy Wars, and the distance between each of
the ranks is like that of the heaven and earth."
0 behevers ! Do liberate your life and your honor from the hands of the
infidels. 0 high-minded people ! Do wash the garments of your manhood
free of ignominy; fight the infidel with yom hfe and wealth. A dirham
spent on a Holy War is worth seven thousand times as much. [0 behev¬
ers!] Be so united as the body of one man by way of cooperation and
coahtion; rejoice over God's help and near victory. There will be no dec¬
laration of Holy War except that which wiU lead you to the right path;
there will be no prayer said by any tongue except that which will receive
a response. No person's soul is to rest until the war [against Italy] comes
to an end ; everyone's ambition and desire should be only the killing of
the [invading] infidels "unth the calamity is over and rehgion is for God."
(2:193) Make your constant efforts; there is not much left to be done.
[According to the Qur'än some hjrpocritic shirkers of the Holy War
said to the behevers :] "Lo ! The people have gathered against you ; there¬
fore, fear them. But [the threat of danger] increased their faith and they
cried : God is sufficient for us. Most Excellent is He in Whom we trust."
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperiahsm 387
(3:173) Yes, the enemies will be defeated by [our] smaU number of peop¬
le, and [soon it will be time] for all the infidels to pay "the tribute readi¬
ly, being brought low." (9:29) [The disaster] in which the Muslims are
now involved may not cause cowardice or incapability in you: "God is
the protecting friend of those who beheve" (2:257); "God is sufficient as a friend and He is sufficient as a helper." (4:45) [0 Mushms!]: Endure,
and be certain that relief and a happy ending are near ; God willing, I
myself am going to join you very son. Our best greetings to you all !
II
The Proclamation of Mirzä Fath Alläh Shaykh
al-Shari'ah Isfahäni
In the Name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful
[This is a statement which I would like] to present to the great 'ulamä,
to the stetely commanders and the chiefs of tribes, to the various noble
and distinguished professionals and merchants, and to all inhabitants of
villages and cities, to nomadic and sedentary people, to [all those] who
adhere to the rehgion of the leader of righteous people, [Muhammad], may
God's blessing be upon him and his pure family and his various compan¬
ions. [I am addressing my statement to all the people of the Mushm
world,] irrespective of their different cities and countries, and their dif¬
ferent religions and principles. Then may my greetings be extended to
all of them, and my prayers for their all-embracing welfare and happi¬
ness.
It is not hidden to intelhgent and knowledgeable people, whose minds
have not been captured by corrupt desires, stagnant imaginations, delu¬
sions, and bare greed, that for several centuries and lengthy epochs, for¬
eigners have been making serious efforts to plunder the wealth of Mus¬
lims and to possess their territories and to bring them under domination.
The foreigners have been taking extreme pains to confuse the opinions
of the Mushm people about themselves, to weaken their behefs, to ex¬
tinguish their wise Qur'än from among them, to annihilate the rites of
their rehgion, to entrust them with what the foreigners themselves pos¬
sess in the way of the matters related to this world and the Hereafter.
They are still attempting to achieve their aims by setting up a particular
line of action which wUl earn the fruits of their aims, which [ean be sum¬
marized] in the following items :
1. They mixed, associated, and made friends with Muslims. By dis¬
playing gentleness and artificial good behavior, showing a [dishonest]
clearness of conscience and a mild character, and by proficiency in their
actions and deeds they naturally attracted common and ignorant people.
388 Abdul-Hadi Haibi
They won over childish minds and [appealed to] the riffraff and simple-
minded people who will follow any herald.
2. By estabhshing trade relations they facilitated the import of their
goods to Mushm countries. The majority of Mushm people fell helplessly
in need of foreigners for most of their hvelihood, such as eating and drink¬
ing, furniture, clothes, vessels, medicines, foods, construction instru¬
ments, tools of writing and hghing, and [other things related to] other
trades. Thousands of Muslim professionals and artisans were forced to
leave their professions and arts. The Muslims became beggars and lost
their reputation in the presence of the prosperous foreigners ; they never
ceased to migrate to foreign countries. There, necessity forced them to be
satisfied with miserable occupations, such as taking care of the foreign¬
ers' animals. [The Muslims had to] tolerate base work and accept every
sort of humihation and depravity. Do not ask from what this poor stran¬
ger, who is far from his people and his country, suffers. [He has to
tolerate] all kinds of insults and maltreatment ; he has to hear abuse and
cursing that the foreigners shower on his religious and temporal leaders,
while he cannot do anything but cowering in silence.
3. [The foreigners] established schools and hospitals, and propagated
the principles of heresy while teaching or giving medical treatment. They
inculcated these principles in the minds of our naive children and simple
boys, and spread among the students of those schools. Today you can see
thousands of them weak in rehgion and corrupt in ideas.
4. They compiled books and treatises which were full of fallacies, con¬
troversies, obscurities, and deceptions. They [made an effort to] find de¬
fects in the Islamic rehgion and to disparage its magnanimity. They print¬
ed and published these publications among Muslims, free of charge or at
a low price.
5. The foreigners sent out their missionaries to invite [Muslim people]
to corrupt ideas and false religions under different conditions and in a
variety of manners. The missionaries encouraged Muslims to desert their
'ulamä and rehgious notables, and enticed them into Westem illusions
and errors.
6. They took possession of the Mushms' specie and jewelry and ex¬
changed them for papers, instmments for amusement, instmments for
producing light, and glass vessels. Therefore, one can see the houses of
any of those Muslims who have a luxurious life [decorated with] ap¬
proximately 20,000 pounds (lirah) worth of these kinds of [luxurious]
materials.
7. [The foreigners] made MusUms become addicted to uimecessary
thing such as sugar-loafe, sugar, cigarettes {lafäHf al-tibgh), tea, and cer¬
tain refreshments (murattibät). So, you can see how many tradesmen and
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 389
professionals are unable to earn enough to meet their expenses even if
they work day and night and make their utmost efforts.
8. [The foreigners] created dissention, discord, enmity, and hatred
among Muslims through certain means which are beyond the comprehen¬
sion of simple-minded people. AU these things are done under different
titles and through various mecha. They stirred up one group to rise
against another, and one tribe against another. They [encouraged Mus¬
lims] to contravene one another, to the extent that they became involv¬
ed in homicides and lost their property. [Consequently] weakness over¬
came them and the vigorous enemy gained [enough] power to intervene
in the affairs of Muslims under the pretext of making peace [between the
two opposing sides]. Then they extended their domination over both
sides. How many of the Mushm countries and big cities lost their inde¬
pendence and were occupied bj' foreigners in such situations ! This is not
[something] which can escape the mind of any thorough historian.
9. [The foreigners] made serious efforts to catch [the attention of] the
common people and to alienate their hearts from the great divine 'ulamä
and distinguished Islamic jurists {fuqahä') and mujtahids. They describ¬
ed the 'ulamä in the ughest manners, and convinced the common Mus¬
hm people that the 'ulamä are only serving [their own] temporal interests
[sic]. They finally made them lose the people's attention, and brought
them down from the zenith of their reputation. [As a result], the 'ulamä's
salutary exhortations and adequate speeches became ineffective. They
reasoned about the 'ulamä's corruption [by giving examples] of the cor¬
ruption existing among some impostors who wore the 'ulamä's costume
and studied some of the 'ulamä's sciences, while they were hostile to the
'ulamä. For this reason, the foreigners have been able to interpret the
important rehgious goals of the 'ulamä only as [serving] their base [per¬
sonal] worldly purposes and sensual desires. They even went as far as to
relate [the 'ulama's alleged corruption] to the [alleged] fallacy of the
foundation of our religion, and by their stratagem they distorted the
brilhant Shari'ah in the eyes of the simple-minded people. There is no
opportunity here to discuss the subject in detail. This is a vast subject
for jwhich even volumes of thick and extensive books will not be suffi¬
cient; I am only lodging a complaint with God, may He be praised.
10. [The foreigners] obtained concessions of different kinds ; they sign¬
ed treaties with Muslim governments and gave them loans which had
nothing to do with the interests of Islam or the Muslims. By doing these
things they increased their infiuence and took possession of the life of
Mushm cities and countries and established their absolute domination
over them.
AU the foreigners share in these [aforementioned] ten cases. But the
390 Abdul-Hadi Hatbi
Westem powers such as Russia and Italy enjoy a vast profit.** Despite
the fact that these two powers did not exclude anything [from what is
described above], they were not satisfied with the extent of their share.
Out of their expanding greed, Russia and Italy invaded Iran and Tripo-
htania respectively in order to colonize them and possess them by force.
They showed their old mahce and disclosed whatever secret they had
hidden in their minds. From them emanated many disastrous battles
and tragic mishaps so that the silent languages of Islam, the faith, the
Ka'bah, and the Qur'än began to exclaim: "Is there any helper to help us?
Is there any supporter to support us? Is there any defender to defend
us?"
In consideration of these broken voices which stirred up, with their
sorrow, the emotions of the Mushms, I, together with other great 'ulamä
and eminent students [of religion] from the most respectable cities of
Najaf, Karbalä, Samarra', and Käzimayn assembled in the latter city.
We saw it obligatory to respond to the appeal of the Qur'än, etc. and of
fellow Muslims, and to sacrifice for this cause whatever is within our pow¬
er. This step was taken in order to perform the duty which God, the ex¬
alted, has ordered us in His Book where He says : "And there may spring
from you a nation who invite others to goodness, and enjoins right con¬
duct and forbids indecency." (3:104) There is a hadith which originated
from the Prophet, may God bless him and his family, and is reported by
the great leader, the trust of Islam, al-Kulayni, may his secret be sancti¬
fied, in Al-Käfi, and by the great leader, the faqih, al-Barqi, may God
rest him in peace, in Al-Mahäsin, and by the learned faqih, Ibn Idris, in
Al-Sarä'ir. According to one line of the hadith transmission, the hadith
says that, "One who hears a man calling upon Muslims [for help] and
does not respond to him is not a Muslim." Another [version of the hadith
which is reported through a different line of transmission reads that,]
"One who sees a man calling upon Muslims for help and does not respond to him is not considered as one of the Muslims."
In view of this hadith, people from distant large cities wrote to us that
the agreement of Muslims on unity depends on their meeting in one
place, on their mutual consultations, and on exchanging their thoughts.
Therefore, we assembled [here in Käzimayn] and had discussions, gave
views, talked, wrote, and communicated the verdict of God, be praised,
to aU Muslims and tribes in all regions, environs and countries. We said :
*' Here no specific reference has been made to the British despite their
military expedition to the south of Iran. It is highly probable that the name
of England had been removed by British agents before the publication of the
statement because similar action, according to a British official document (note no. 37 above), was taken in the case of one of the 'stoma's telegram.
The Responses of Libyans and Iranians to Imperialism 391
"It is compulsory [upon all Muslims] to abandon domestic disagree¬
ments, internal conflicts, pohtical quarrels, and rehgious diputes in such
a [situation] as today's". We announced that our meeting in this pleasant
city has not taken place except for the victory of Islam and Muslims,
irrespective of any pohtical ideologies, administrative conditions, [the
ideas of] constitutionalism and tyranny, [any particular] groups or in¬
dividuals. We have not gathered [in Käzimayn] to strengthen any of the
two ideas or to weaken any of the two [opposite parties, i. e. constitu¬
tionalists and absolutists].** We came here to strengthen all those who
strengthen Islam and the faith whosoever they may be.
Today is a day when the realm of the infidel and Islam have been stand¬
ing face to face. It is a day when it is compulsory to protect Islam which
has become alienated [from its people]. It is necessary to respond to Mus¬
hms and their call. O Muslims! Be united and rehnquish all the disagree¬
ments and conflicts which would be the cause of your extinction and the
extinction of your religion. [Do establish] relations among one another
and make peace with one another. Do not create any excuses for the for¬
eigners under which they may interfere [in your affairs] and trample down
your countries with infidehty and heresy.
0 Muslims! Enough iimocent blood has been shed because of [yom
domestic] disagreements. Do not hurt our Prophet more than this ! Are
you still patient before this ignominy and abasement [which you are suf¬
fering], and content with this humiliation and injustice [infiicted upon
you] ! What ignominy is greater for you than the invasion of yom cities
by so barbarous state as Russia which holds you up to mockery in yom
own country, and causes offense to your distinguished men by sending
them into exile, mmdering them, putting them in prison, and hanging
them!
0 Iranians ! The continuation of the present disuinty wül cause the
extinction of yom religion and your worldly existence. [Soon], if you look
back, you wül not be able to see any trace of your rehgion and wül not
hear any news about it. There wül be no place of worship, no mosque, no
faith, no behef in the imity of God. We shall be excused before om Lord
*♦ Here the Shaykh is referring to the Persian Constitutional Revolution
of 1906—1909 in which the 'idamä were actively involved ; two clerical wings
which have been referred to as "absolutists and constitutionalists" opposed
eaeh other on the problem of the establishment of a constitutional form of
government. Accounts of the former may be foimd in Abdtjl-Hadi Hatpt ;
Shaykh Fazl Alläh Nürl's Rejutation of the Idea of Constitutionalism. In:
Middle Eastem Studies 13 (1977), pp. 327—39, and of the latter in idem.
Why Did the 'Ulamä Participate in the Persian Constituiional Revolution of
1906—1900?. In: WI 17 (1976/7), pp. 127—54.
392 Abdul-Hadi Hairi, The Responses of Libyans and Iranians
because we have announced the verdict of God, the exalted. Therefore,
if you obey, you wiU become victorious in this world and in the Here¬
after. Otherwise [you will not succeed]; we have performed our duty:
"Our duty is but plain conveyance [of God's message]." (36:17)
What is more, our hope is that other distinguished 'ulamä, may their
blessings persist, will give currency to [aforementioned] subjects or other
subjects similar to them among Muslim brothers in all cities and regions.
[This step should be taken] in order to give the people insight into their
own affairs. We only convey [the message], but it is God who gives suc¬
cess, if He, may He be exalted, wills.
[This proclamation] was written by the sinful criminal, Fath Allah al-
Gharawi al-Shiräzi al-Isfahäni, known as Shaykh al-Shari'ah, may God
pardon his atrocious sins, on the twenty-sixth of the admirable month
of Safar, in the year of 1330 [of the Islamic era : February 14,1912].*^
" The use by the 'ulamä of adjectives such as "sinful", "criminal",
"abject", etc. in reference to themselves is common among the 'ulamä;
they are to be interpreted as expressions of their ascetism and humility.
Tschuktschisch und Uralisch II
Von Karl Bouda f
Wie in meiner früheren Abhandlmig TU schließt Tschuktschisch hier
die beiden nahe verwandten Sprachen Korjakisch und Kamtschadalisch
ein. Als Ergänzung möchte ich einige Koinzidenzen in derselben Anord¬
nung nach phonetischen Gesichtspunkten wie dort vortragen. Dabei ist
mir aufgefallen, daß, was das Uralische angeht, die bekannte wolgafin¬
nische Sprache Mordwinisch neues Material bietet. Das kann kaum Zu¬
fall sein, jedenfalls ist es bemerkenswert.
Schon früher habe ich lexikalische Koinzidenzen des Kamtschada¬
lischen, dessen behandelte Wörter in KSt *37*fF. verzeiclmet sind, und
der beiden wolgafinnischen Sprachen erwähnt, möchte hier jedoch, um
Wiederholungen zu vermeiden, nur auf einige bemerkenswert erscheinen¬
de Beispiele hmweisen, VTS IV 11.23.39. VTS I 182.
Das Material habe ich wie immer aus Texten gewonnen, was, wie man
weiß, eine lange mühevolle Arbeit voraussetzt. Auch hier blieb gar lüchts
anderes übiig, da Paasonens Wörterbuch, das bereits 1941 im Vorwort
von MV III angekündigt worden ist, soviel ich bis jetzt — Mitte Oktober
1977 — weiß, noch nicht erschienen ist. Als Grundlage besitze ich nur das
Glossar, das Paasonen seiner Chrestomathie von 1909 hat folgen lassen.
Obwohl es 192 Seiten umfaßt, fehlt da noch viel. Um diesem Mangel ei¬
nigermaßen abzuhelfen, habe ich es rait HUfe verschiedener Texte er¬
gänzt, vor allem 0, E und MV. Bei der Arbeit habe ich einige Berichti¬
gungen zu dem Glossar notiert, z.B. M kaSmsrdS ,, Luchs" (?) : in O heißt es kazvarS{-ke) „Mavüwurf", ferner M seje^ „Kohlenstengel", das mir un¬
verständUch ist und wohl „Kohlstrunk" heißen soll. Wie früher' ist die
Transkription hier vereinfacht: Konsonanten sind vor den Vokalen
mordw. e und i immer palatal, so daß es sich erübrigt, sie als solche eigens
zu kennzeichnen. Beim PossessivsuflBx Sg. 3. E -nzo folge ich Paasonen,
nicht der Transkription mit der stimmhaften Affrikata in den neueren
Drucken, deren Verschlußlaut sekundärer vermittelnder Übergangslaut
ist wie in nfr. gendre usw.
Zuerst stehen die mordwinisch-kamtschadahschen Wortgleichungen,
' Z.B. Bouda : Alaniach-akythische Lehnwörter und Lehnbeziehungen im
Mordwinischen. In: UJ 19 (1939), 332—338.
