Applied Time Series Analysis

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Marcel Dettling, Zurich University of Applied Sciences

Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Marcel Dettling

Institute for Data Analysis and Process Design Zurich University of Applied Sciences

marcel.dettling@zhaw.ch http://stat.ethz.ch/~dettling

ETH Zürich, March 11, 2013

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Where are we?

For most of the rest of this course, we will deal with (weakly) stationary time series. They have the following properties:

•

If a time series is non-stationary, we know how to decompose into deterministic and stationary, random part.

Our forthcoming goals are:

- understanding the dependency in a stationary series - modeling this dependency and generate forecasts

[ _t]

E X   ( _t) 2

Var X 

( _t, _{t h}) _h Cov X X _  

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Autocorrelation

The aim of this section is to estimate, explore and understand the dependency structure within a time series.

Def: Autocorrelation

Autocorrelation is a dimensionless measure for the strength of the linear association between the random variables and . There are 2 estimators, i.e. the lagged sample and the plug-in.

 see the blackboard for a sketch of the two approaches…

( , )

( ) ( )

t k t

Cov X X Cor X X

Var X Var X

 



 

X

t k_

X

_t

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Comparison Idea 1 vs. Idea 2

0 10 20 30 40

-1.0-0.50.00.51.0

lag

acf

Comparison between lagged sample correlations and acf

acf

lagged sample correlations

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Practical Interpretation of Autocorrelation

We e.g. assume

 The square of the autocorrelation, i.e. , is the percentage of variability explained by the linear association between and its predecessor .

 Thus, in our example, accounts for roughly 49%

of the variability observed in random variable . Only roughly because the world is not linear.

 From this we can also conclude that any is not a strong association, i.e. has a small effect on the next observation only.

( ) k 0.7

 

( )k 2 0.49





Xt X_t_₁

( ) k 0.4

 

1

Xt_

Xt

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Random Series – Confidence Bands

If a time series is completely random, i.e. consists of i.i.d. random variables , the (theoretical) autocorrelations are equal to 0.

However, the estimated are not. We thus need to decide, whether an observed is significantly so, or just appeared by chance. This is the idea behind the confidence bands.

ˆ ( )k



0 5 10 15

-0.20.20.61.0

ACF

Series lh

Xt



^{( )}^k

ˆ ( )k 0





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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Random Series – Confidence Bands

For long i.i.d. time series, it can be shown that the are approximately distributed.

Thus, if a series is random, 95% of the estimated can be expected to lie within the interval

ˆ ( )k



ˆ ( )k

 2 / n



0 5 10 15 20

0.00.40.8

Lag

ACF

i.i.d. Series with n=300



^{0,1 /}



N n

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Random Series – Confidence Bands

Thus, even for a (long) i.i.d. time series, we expect that 5% of the estimated autocorrelation coeffcients exceed the confidence

bounds. They correspond to type I errors.

Note: the probabilistic properties of non-normal i.i.d series are much more difficult to derive.

0 5 10 15 20

0.00.40.8

ACF

i.i.d. Series with n=300

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Short Term Correlation

Simulated Short Term Correlation Series

Time

ts.sim

0 100 200 300 400

-4-202

0 5 10 15 20 25

-0.20.20.61.0

Lag

ACF

ACF of Simulated Short Term Correlation Series

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Short Term Correlation

Stationary series often exhibit short-term correlation, characterized by a fairly large value of , followed by a few more coefficients which, while significantly greater than zero, tend to get successively smaller. For longer lags k, they are close to 0.

A time series which gives rise to such a correlogram, is one for

which an observation above the mean tends to be followed by one or more further observations above the mean, and similarly for

observations below the mean.

A model called an autoregressive model may be appropriate for series of this type.

ˆ (1)



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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Alternating Time Series

Simulated Alternating Correlation Series

Time

ts.sim

0 50 100 150 200

-3-10123

0 5 10 15 20

-0.50.00.51.0

Lag

ACF

ACF of Simulated Alternating Correlation Series

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Applied Time Series Analysis

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Non-Stationarity in the ACF: Trend

Simulated Series with a Trend

Time

ts.sim

0 50 100 150 200

051525

0 5 10 15 20

0.00.40.8

ACF

ACF of Simulated Series with a Trend

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Non-Stationarity in the ACF: Seasonal Pattern

De-Trended Mauna Loa Data

Time

diff(co2)

1960 1970 1980 1990

-2-1012

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-0.50.00.51.0

Lag

ACF

ACF of De-Trended Mauna Loa Data

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

ACF of the Raw Airline Data

Airline Data

Time

airline

1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960

100300500

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

-0.20.20.61.0

Lag

ACF

ACF of Airline Data

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Outliers and the ACF

Outliers in the time series strongly affect the ACF estimation!

Beaver Body Temperature

Time

beav1$temp

0 20 40 60 80 100

36.436.636.837.037.237.4

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Outliers and the ACF

36.4 36.6 36.8 37.0 37.2 37.4

36.436.636.837.037.237.4

Lagged Scatterplot with k=1 for Beaver Data

1 Outlier, appears 2x

in the lagged scatterplot

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Outliers and the ACF

The estimates are very sensitive to outliers. They can be

diagnosed using the lagged scatterplot, where every single outlier appears twice.

Strategy for dealing with outliers:

- if it is an outlier: delete the observation

- replace the now missing observations by either:

a) global mean of the series

b) local mean of the series, e.g. +/- 3 observations

c) fit a time series model and predict the missing value

ˆ ( ) k



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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

General Remarks about the ACF

a) Appearance of the series => Appearance of the ACF Appearance of the series <= Appearance of the ACF b) Compensation

All autocorrelation coefficients sum up to -1/2. For large lags k, they can thus not be trusted, but are at least

damped. This is a reason for using the rule of the thumb.

1

ˆ ( ) 1

2

n

k

 k





  

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

How Well Can We Estimate the ACF?

What do we know already?

- The ACF estimates are biased

- At higher lags, we have few observations, and thus variability - There also is the compensation problem…

 ACF estimation is not easy, and interpretation is tricky.

For answering the question above:

- For an AR(1) time series process, we know the true ACF - We generate a number of realizations from this process - We record the ACF estimates and compare to the truth

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Theoretical vs. Estimated ACF

0 50 100 150 200

0.00.20.40.60.81.0

lag

ACF

True ACF of AR(1)-process with alpha_1=0.7

0 50 100 150 200

-0.20.20.61.0

ACF

Estimated ACF from an AR(1)-series with alpha_1=0.7

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

How Well Can We Estimate the ACF?

A) For AR(1)-processes we understand the theoretical ACF B) Repeat for i=1, …, 1000

Simulate a length n AR(1)-process Estimate the ACF from that realization End for

C) Boxplot the (bootstrap) sample distribution of ACF-estimates Do so for different lags k and different series length n

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

How Well Can We Estimate the ACF?

Variation in ACF(1) estimation

n=20 n=50 n=100 n=200

-1.0-0.50.00.51.0

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Partial Autocorrelation Function (PACF)

The partial autocorrelation is defined as the correlation between and , given all the values in between.

Interpretation:

• Given a time series , the partial autocorrelation of lag k, is the autocorrelation between and with the linear

dependence of through to removed.

• One can draw an analogy to regression. The ACF measures the „simple“ dependence between and , whereas the PACF measures that dependence in a „multiple“ fashion.

Xt k_

Xt



k

th

Xt k_ X_t

1 1 1 1

( , | ,..., )

k

Cor X

t k

X

t

X

t

x

t

X

t k

x

t k

 

_ _



_ _{ }



_{ }

Xt

Xt X_{t k}_

1

Xt_ X_{t k}_{ }₁

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Facts About the PACF and Estimation

We have:

•

• for AR(1) models, we have ,

because

• For estimating the PACF, we utilize the fact that for any AR(p) model, we have: and for all . Thus, for finding , we fit an AR(p) model to the series for various orders p and set

1 1







2

2 1

2 2

1 1

 

 

 





²  0

2

2 1







p p







ˆ_p



ˆ_p ˆ_p







k 0



 k  p

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Applied Time Series Analysis

SS 2013 – Week 04

Facts about the PACF

• Estimation of the PACF is implemented in R.

• The first PACF coefficient is equal to the first ACF coefficient.

Subsequent coefficients are not equal, but can be derived from each other.

• For a time series generated by an AR(p)-process, the

PACF coefficient is equal to the AR-coefficient. All PACF coefficients for lags are equal to 0.

• Confidence bounds also exist for the PACF.

p

th

p

th