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Economics and Conflict : Moving beyond Conjectures and Correlations

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Erschienen in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies / Marlin-Bennett, Renée (Hrsg.). - New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2017

https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.84

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