Copley, West and the tradition of European High Art

l. John Singleton Copley (American), Watson and the Shark, 1778, oil on canvas, 182.1 x 229.7 ^{c m}-

Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art, Ferdinand Lammot Belin Fund, no. 1963.6.1.

Originalveröffentlichung in: Gaehtgens, Thomas W. (Hrsg.): American icons : transatlantic perspectives on eighteenth- and nineteenth-century American art, Santa Monica (Calif.) 1992, S. 34-59

W e r n e r B u s c h

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

W e have b e c o m e u s e d to s e e i n g A m e r i c a n p a i n t i n g o f the e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s f r o m a E u r o p e a n p e r s p e c t i v e , that is, as an art of o n l y relative m e r i t . I n the e i g h t e e n t h century, A m e r i c a n art seems totally d e p e n­ dent o n E n g l i s h m o d e l s , w h i l e in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y it is l a r g e l y d o m i ­ n a t e d by the i n f l u e n c e of the D u s s e l d o r f s c h o o l . V e r y o f t e n it is p r e c i s e l y the A m e r i c a n e l e m e n t in A m e r i c a n p a i n t i n g that is c o n s i d e r e d p r o v i n c i a l a n d n a i v e . R e c e n t e x h i b i t i o n s — such as T h o m a s G a e h t g e n s ' s Bilder aus der Neuen Welt — have tried to d o justice to the p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n of A m e r i ­ can p a i n t i n g .1 A s a c o r r e c t i o n o f c u r r e n t views, this is u s e f u l a n d necessarv.

In a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e , h o w e v e r , e s t a b l i s h e d p o s i t i o n s are not that r e a d i l y d i s c a r d e d . I t h i n k it j u s t i f i a b l e , therefore, to assume the E u r o p e a n r o l e once m o r e — p l a y i n g a k i n d of d e v i l ' s a d v o c a t e .

In t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y p a i n t e r s w o r k i n g in E n g l a n d at the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , I shall a r g u e that the n o v e l t y of A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g — so a b u n d a n t l y stressed in recent critical d i s c u s s i o n — is n o t so m u c h a s p e c i f i c a l l y A m e r i c a n p h e n o m e n o n but instead f o l l o w s an E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n a n d is part of a g e n e r a l c h a n g e of the E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t i o n of p a i n t i n g in the late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . It is p o s s i ­ ble, however, that the A m e r i c a n o r i g i n o f these p a i n t e r s m a d e t h e m react m o r e s e n s i t i v e l y a n d d e c i s i v e l y to these n e w trends, w h i c h can be related to a n e w m a n n e r of art r e c e p t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m the c h a n g e d c h a r a c t e r of the p u b l i c .

E n g l a n d ' s p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n this c h a n g e d e r i v e s , r o u g h l y s p e a k i n g , f r o m two E n g l i s h p e c u l i a r i t i e s : first, f r o m the e a r l y e x i s t e n c e of a c o n s t i t u ­ t i o n a l m o n a r c h y , w h i c h , at least in large cities, b r o u g h t a b o u t a m e a s u r e of

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social transparency, if not social permeability, with a powerful debating press, and, second, from the absence of a specifically English art tradition before the first third of the eighteenth century. Subsequently, this absence led to a need to compensate by inaugurating a national school of history painting, and at the same time it created an awareness of English particu­

larity. T h e general change in the European conception of painting first became evident as an international Neoclassicism during the second half of the eighteenth century in Rome. T h e important share English artists had in this development has only now been realized. The separate English way and the change of European art language converge in what we now call the rise of historical thinking.

This meant that English art did not see itself as an integral part of a European tradition of High Art but began to look at this tradition in an art-historical way (which was connected to the rise of a new public and facil­

itated by the development of a new aesthetics of perception). It also meant that the archaeological dimension of this international Neoclassicism — its attempt to reconstruct the purity of classical antiquity — accounted for its sentimental and reflective tendency. This specifically English conscious­

ness of artistic and historical difference was expressed with great lucidity by Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1790 in the last of his Royal Academy discourses:

In pursuing this great Art [i.e., the H i g h Art tradition of Michelangelo], it must be acknowledged that we labour under greater difficulties than those who were born in the age of its discovery, and whose minds from their infancy were habituated to this style; who learnt it as language, as their mother tongue. T h e y had no mean taste to unlearn; they needed no persuasive dis­

course to allure them to a favourable reception of it, no abstruse investigation of its principles to convince them of the great latent truths on which it is founded. We are constrained, in these later days, to have recourse to a sort of G r a m m a r and Dictionary, as the only means of recovering a dead language.

It was by them learned by rote, and perhaps better learned that way than by precept.2

I shall attempt to show in a detailed analysis of a single painting by John

Singleton Copley what consequences such consciousness and the recourse

to the dictionary of a lost language of art had for the American-English art

of the late eighteenth century. It will be necessary, however, occasionally to

C O P L E Y . W E S T , A N D T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

b r o a d e n the c o n t e x t to i n c l u d e B e n j a m i n West a n d , b e y o n d West, W i l l i a m H o g a r t h , in o r d e r to s h o w t h e r e l e v a n c e , in this c o n t e x t , of a g e n u i n e l y E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n .

C o p l e y ' s Watson and the Shark (fig. 1) has c e r t a i n l y r e c e i v e d e x h a u s t i v e c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n .3 T h i s a p p e a r s to be e v e n m o r e t r u e of West's Death of General Wolfe (fig. 2).4 N e v e r t h e l e s s , I s h a l l discuss C o p l e y ' s p a i n t i n g o n c e m o r e , u s i n g West's Wolfe as a foil. I c a n n o t c o m e u p w i t h n e w h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e , but I h o p e to g i v e m o r e d e p t h to what we a l r e a d y k n o w by l o o k i n g at it f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e .

T h e n o v e l t y of West's as w e l l as C o p l e y ' s h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g s lies — as e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o l a r l y o p i n i o n has it — in its c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n c o n t e m p o­ r a r y h i s t o r y i n c o n t e m p o r a r y g u i s e . T h i s n e w r e a l i s m in h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g is the first A m e r i c a n c o n t r i b u t i o n to W e s t e r n art, as o n e can r e a d in the standard work on C o p l e y .5 West, the Q u a k e r f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a , a n d C o p l e y , the P u r i t a n f r o m B o s t o n , d e v e l o p e d a d i s t i n c t l y n a t u r a l i s t i c p r a g m a t i s m , free f r o m the b u r d e n of E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n . West — as the m o r e n u a n c e d o p i n i o n of a m o r e recent m o n o g r a p h w o u l d have it — on the o n e h a n d a i m e d at a u t h e n t i c i t y , at the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n " o f h o w it a c t u a l l y was," a n d o n the o t h e r s t r o v e to a c h i e v e t h e m o n u m e n t a l d i g n i t y o f the classic h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n .6 I n the case of Wolfe h e was able to l i n k both by t r a n s c e n d i n g the m e r e l y i l l u s t r a t i v e e l e m e n t s : W o l f e ' s d e a t h c o n n o t e d C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r d o m by the d y i n g g e n e r a l ' s a s s u m p t i o n of the p o s e of the d e a d C h r i s t . Or, as m a i n t a i n e d e l s e w h e r e , the d e a t h for the f a t h e r l a n d is e n n o b l e d by the a l l u ­ s i o n to C h r i s t ' s d e a t h for m a n k i n d .7 I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n o n e c o u l d say of C o p l e y ' s Watson that its y o u t h f u l h e r o , in a t t a c k i n g the m o n s t r o u s s h a r k , a s s u m e d the r o l e a n d f i g u r a t i o n of Saint M i c h a e l f o r c i n g Evil back into hell.

T h u s the c o m m o n c o n t e m p o r a r y event was m a d e p a r t of C h r i s t i a n sacred h i s t o r y .8 N o n e o f these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is w r o n g : West's Wolfe is i n d e e d m o d e l e d after the scene of the L a m e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t , a n d C o p l e v ' s h e r o d e f i n i t e l y f o l l o w s the Saint M i c h a e l t y p e . A n d yet b o t h o b s e r v a t i o n s are n e v e r t h e l e s s i n s u f f i c i e n t , for the c o n n e c t i o n to the C h r i s t i a n m o d e l is in b o t h cases m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x . T h e r e f o r e its m e a n i n g has to be m o d i f i e d . First we shall e x a m i n e C o p l e y ' s Watson, e x h i b i t e d in 1778 at the R o y a l A c a d e m y i n L o n d o n . Its q u a l i t y of r e p o r t a g e has often suggested a c o m p a r i ­ son with T h e o d o r e G e r i c a u l t ' s Raft of the "Medusa" (Radeau de la "Meduse"), 1818-1819 (Paris, M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) . In o t h e r respects, too, these t w o p a i n t ­ i n g s w o u l d s e e m to be r e l a t e d : w i t h the u n u s u a l n o v e l t y of t h e i r t h e m e s .

37

2. Benjamin West (American), The Death of General Wolfe, 1770, oil on canvas, 153.7 x 213-4 c m-

Ottawa, National Gallery of Canada, no. 8007.

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND THE T R A D I T I O N OF EUROPEAN H I G H A R T

they b o t h a i m e d , q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y , at the a u d i e n c e ' s c u r i o s i t y , its lust for e x c i t e m e n t a n d s e n s a t i o n .9 T h u s , the f u n c t i o n a l aspect of a n e w b o u r g e o i s art b e c o m e s e v i d e n t : since the r e a c t i o n of the p u b l i c — that is, the a u d i e n c e a n d t h e press — d e t e r m i n e d the r a n k i n g a n d success of an artist, the artist h a d to s u r p a s s in n o v e l t y h i s c o m p e t i t o r s , w h o s e w o r k s c o v e r e d the walls of the A c a d e m y e x h i b i t i o n by the h u n d r e d s . E v e r s i n c e the late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the arts, c o m p e l l e d by the m a r k e t a n d its p e c u l i a r f o r m s o f d i s t r i­

b u t i o n , h a v e t h u s b e e n u n d e r c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e to i n n o v a t e .

C o p l e y ' s p a i n t i n g — a n d this is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t h e r e — is a p r i v a t e c o m ­ m i s s i o n to r e c o r d a s i n g u l a r a n d d r a m a t i c event in the life of its p a t r o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the p a i n t i n g o b v i o u s l y c o u r t s the p u b l i c by its c o v e r t a l l u ­ sions to H i g h A r t . ft t h e r e f o r e c o m e s as n o s u r p r i s e that C o p l e y m a d e two r e p r o d u c t i o n s , a n d as in the case of West's Wolfe, the p r i n t after the p a i n t ­ i n g was an e n o r m o u s success. Later, C o p l e y p a i n t e d c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y d i r e c t l y for the p u b l i c w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g p a t r o n , o r g a n i z e d h i s o w n e x h i b i t i o n s , a n d b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t o n the i n c o m e f r o m e n t r a n c e fees a n d f r o m the sale of r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f f e r e d for s u b s c r i p t i o n (since the s e l l i n g of c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g was d e c i d e d l y d i f f i c u l t w i t h o u t the h e l p of a p a t r o n ) . S u c h p a i n t i n g n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e d t a k i n g sides in c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l debate a n d thus i n e v i t a b l y b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d in p a r t y politics. B u t it t h r i v e d o n the c u r i o s i t y of t h e p u b l i c n o m a t t e r what p o s i t i o n it a s s u m e d t o w a r d the event it r e p r e s e n t e d .

T h e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t y of C o p l e y ' s Watson also relates to the c h a r a c t e r of the n e w b o u r g e o i s p u b l i c . I n its a l l u s i o n to e s t a b l i s h e d c o n v e n t i o n a n d its use o f f o r m u l a , the p r i v a t e s u b j e c t m a t t e r b e c o m e s a v a i l a b l e to c o l l e c ­ tive r e c e p t i o n — w h i c h is, h o w e v e r , i n d i v i d u a l i z e d in as m u c h as the p r i ­ vate i n v i t e s i n d i v i d u a l a n d s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n c e it c a n n o t c l a i m h i s t o r i c a l or u n i v e r s a l m e a n i n g .

T h e event that o c c a s i o n e d the p a i n t i n g can be t o l d in few w o r d s . B r o o k W a t s o n , a successful L o n d o n m e r c h a n t , h a d been attacked bv a shark in 1749 w h e n , at the age of f o u r t e e n , h e was s w i m m i n g in the h a r b o r of H a v a n a . H e r e c e i v e d s e r i o u s leg i n j u r i e s a n d lost h i s r i g h t foot in the shark's sec­

o n d attack. W h e n it attacked for a t h i r d t i m e , however, it was d r i v e n away by the i n m a t e s of the a c c o m p a n y i n g boat. C o p l e y r e c o r d s this d r a m a t i c a n d d e c i s i v e m o m e n t o f the story. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n is r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e : a t r i ­ a n g l e s h i f t e d f r o m the c e n t e r i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the r u l e s of the g o l d e n s e c t i o n . T h e t r i a n g l e a s c e n d s f r o m the b r i g h t e s t p a r t o f W a t s o n ' s b o d y

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( h e l p l e s s l y d r i f t i n g in the w a t e r ) , to the m a n o n the r i g h t b e n d i n g f o r w a r d , to the f i g u r e h o l d i n g h i m , a n d f r o m there to the black m a n s t a n d i n g u p r i g h t b e h i n d h i m ; t h e n it l e a d s d o w n w a r d a g a i n a l o n g the straight l i n e o f the h a r p o o n . T h e basis o f this t r i a n g l e is f o r m e d by W a t s o n a n d the s h a r k . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e is a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the r i s i n g l i n e of the o a r a n d t h e d e s c e n d i n g l i n e of the m o n s t e r ' s back.

F o r C o p l e y t h e h i s t o r y p a i n t e r t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s d i l e m m a . T h e m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t o f t h e p a i n t i n g h a d to be its p a t r o n . B u t W a t s o n is c o m p l e t e l y h e l p l e s s i n the water. B e c a u s e o f the p a s s i v i t y of the p a i n t i n g ' s p r i n c i p a l f i g u r e , t h e h e r o ' s r o l e is s h i f t e d to the y o u n g h a r p o o n e r at the b o w of the boat, w h o , w i t h h a i r s t r e a m i n g , raises t h e l a n c e l i k e boat h o o k to d e a l the d e c i s i v e a n d s a v i n g blow. I n c o n t r a s t to the classical c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g , h o w e v e r , all p e r s o n s i n the boat r e c e i v e the s a m e a t t e n t i o n . T h e i r p r e s e n c e is n o t d e p e n d e n t o n a h e r o ; e a c h o n e is a l l o w e d to react i n d i v i d u­ ally. T h e p r e s s p r a i s e d e s p e c i a l l y C o p l e y ' s a b i l i t y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e p h y s i o g ­ n o m i e s . T h e g a r m e n t s o f the p r o t a g o n i s t s a p p e a r to b e c o n t e m p o r a r y ; it c a n a l s o b e p r o v e d that C o p l e y u s e d c o n t e m p o r a r y v i e w s for his s i l h o u e t t e of H a v a n a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , two t h i n g s s e e m u n u s u a l : first, W a t s o n is a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y n a k e d , a n d the e x t r e m e p a l e n e s s o f h i s b o d y h a d critics r e m a r k w i t h s o m e i r r i t a t i o n that it m a d e h i m l o o k as if h e w e r e a l r e a d y d e a d .1 0

S e c o n d , t h e w h i t e u n d e r g a r m e n t of the y o u t h f u l h e r o falls u n u s u a l l y w i d e a n d , i n d i s t i n c t l y n o n c o n t e m p o r a r y f a s h i o n , w e l l d o w n b e l o w t h e b e l t ; f u r t h e r m o r e it is d r a p e d a b o v e t h e k n e e o f the left leg, w h i c h is r a i s e d at a r i g h t a n g l e . H e r e the c o n t e m p o r a r y is r e p r e s e n t e d i n a d e f i n i t e l y classi­

cal m a n n e r .

T h e m o t i f c a n b e t r a c e d to t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of S a i n t M i c h a e l , w h o s e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l t y p e was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d a l r e a d y d u r i n g the M i d d l e A g e s . It f o u n d its classical f o r m in the c i r c l e of R a p h a e l , a n d f r o m there it s p r e a d o v e r all E u r o p e . E s p e c i a l l y f a m o u s in E n g l a n d was G u i d e R e n i ' s v e r s i o n o f 1635 (fig. 3), w h i c h e x i s t s in a great n u m b e r o f c o p i e s , o n e of w h i c h was in the p o s s e s s i o n of B e n j a m i n West. I n 1776/1777, j u s t b e f o r e C o p l e y d e l i n e ­ ated Watson, West h a d p a i n t e d , in the m a n n e r of R e n i , a h u g e Saint M i c h a e l f o r the c h a p e l of T r i n i t y C o l l e g e in C a m b r i d g e . It is v e r y l i k e l y that West h a d f a m i l i a r i z e d h i s c o m p a t r i o t a n d p r o t e g e C o p l e y w i t h h i s c o p y of R e n i , h i s o w n p a i n t i n g o f S a i n t M i c h a e l , a n d w i t h the w h o l e S a i n t M i c h a e l ico­

n o g r a p h y . West's p a i n t i n g c l e a r l y s h o w s that h e h a d e x a m i n e d this c o m ­ p l e x i c o n o g r a p h y i n great d e t a i l .1 1 H e r e , as in m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f the

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND THE T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

3. Guido Reni (Italian),

Saint Michael (Salt Michele). 1635, oil on canvas, 293 x 202 cm.

Rome, Santa Maria della Coneezione.

B U S C H

R a p h a e l t r a d i t i o n , S a i n t M i c h a e l is s h o w n i n t h e act of c o n q u e r i n g Satan, w h o is w r i t h i n g u n d e r n e a t h h i m , o f t e n w i t h a h u g e a n d g a p i n g m o u t h a n d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y , as w i t h R e n i , w i t h the l o n g , c o i l i n g tail o f a serpent. T h e r e c a n be n o q u e s t i o n that i n C o p l e y ' s p a i n t i n g the i n c a r n a t i o n o f e v i l is the s h a r k w i t h its t h r e a t e n i n g m o u t h w i d e o p e n a n d its tail f i n r i s i n g o u t of the w a t e r b e h i n d the b o a t . Yet, in h i s v e r s i o n o f the Saint M i c h a e l t o p i c C o p l e y g o e s s e v e r a l steps f u r t h e r .

T h e g r o u p o f S a i n t M i c h a e l a n d Satan is f o u n d i n R e v e l a t i o n 20:1-3.

I n R e n i ' s p a i n t i n g , t h e c h a i n i n S a i n t M i c h a e l ' s h a n d refers p r e c i s e l y to this passage. B u t the i c o n o g r a p h i c a l t y p e is t a k e n f r o m a l a r g e r scenic c o n t e x t : that of t h e fall of t h e a n g e l s , R e v e l a t i o n 12:7-9. L u c i f e r h a d taken posses­

s i o n o f G o d ' s t h r o n e , f r o m w h i c h M i c h a e l e x p e l l e d h i m , p u s h i n g h i m w i t h his l a n c e i n t o h e l l a l o n g w i t h h i s w h o l e d e v i l i s h b r o o d . T h e o l o g i c a l l y , this m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the h i s t o r y o f s a l v a t i o n . A n a l o g o u s to this t o p i c is a n o t h e r i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y r e l a t e d t h e m e that a l s o i n v o l v e s Saint M i c h a e l a n d m a r k s t h e e n d of t h e h i s t o r y of s a l v a t i o n : the Last J u d g m e n t . M i c h a e l , the w e i g h e r of s o u l s , s e p a r a t e s t h e s a v e d f r o m the c o n d e m n e d , w h o w r i t h e at h i s feet as d i d the f a l l e n a n g e l s . Q u i t e o f t e n , M i c h a e l uses h i s l a n c e to r u s h the d a m n e d i n t o h e l l a l i t t l e faster. S e e n in this i c o n o g r a p h i c t r a d i ­ tion, the m o t i f of Watson a n d the r a n g e of its m e a n i n g b e c o m e a little clearer.

T h e f i g u r a t i o n o f Watson d e r i v e s f r o m the g r o u p of the r e s u r r e c t e d s o u l s at the Last J u d g m e n t , w h o , w i t h w r i t h i n g a n d d i s t o r t e d b o d i e s , f e a r f u l l y await G o d ' s j u d g m e n t a n d its e x e c u t i o n by S a i n t M i c h a e l . J u s t as Satan has to g i v e u p the s o u l s a v e d by the d i v i n e j u d g m e n t , so the satanic s h a r k , at the last m o m e n t , h a s to let g o of W a t s o n , w h o m it was a b o u t to tear a p a r t . T h u s W a t s o n c a n b e said to e x p e r i e n c e h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n a l r e a d y d u r i n g his life­

t i m e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s h a r k a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e s the g a p i n g m o u t h o f h e l l — i n d e e d this m a y h e l p e x p l a i n the r a t h e r s t r a n g e a p p e a r a n c e of its f o r e h e a d . T h e p r o b l e m i n h e r e n t i n this c o n c e p t i o n of h i s t o r y b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t i n its s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e s a c r e d . A s s u c h t h e transfer of the i c o n o g r a p h i c t y p e to t h e actual h i s t o r i c a l event is n o t yet b l a s p h e m y . T h e use of an i c o n o ­ g r a p h i c a l f i g u r a t i o n i n t h e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d c o n t e x t s was c o m m o n classical p r a c t i c e a n d h a d a l s o b e e n a p p l i e d to the t o p o s of Saint M i c h a e l . L e t m e m e n t i o n j u s t o n e e x a m p l e , w h i c h , b y t h e way, is a g o o d i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the m o t i f of t h e left k n e e i n t e n t i o n a l l y bare of g a r m e n t . It d e r i v e s f r o m the East­

e r n i c o n o g r a p h y of the r u l e r a n d c a n be t r a c e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d to I n g r e s ' s o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f N a p o l e o n as e m p e r o r .

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

The print by Egidius Sadeler after Bartholomaus Spranger (fig. 4) shows the victory of science over ignorance and barbarism in the figuration of Saint Michael.12 Here the transfer of the Michael motif is rather far-reach­

ing. The donkey-eared embodiment of ignorance and barbarism takes Satan's place, and the angel's palm of victory and the flying garment of science optically replace Saint Michael's wings; furthermore, the fetters derive from the chain with which Michael throws Satan into the abyss.

A n d yet there is a fundamental difference between these two forms of transfer. With Spranger the motif functions exclusively as a formula indi­

cating conquest that was canonically developed in classical picture language in connection with the Saint Michael topos. The meaning of the Christian paradigm from which it originated is by no means called into question. It may be recognized by the connoisseur of art, who will read it as a confirma­

tion of the classic and normative quality of Spranger's work and as a refer­

ence to the Christian foundation of all psychomachia. The art public of the eighteenth century, however, for whom the motif had lost its normative meaning, could comprehend its origin only art historically. It could make it an object to prove one's education. But this knowledge had to include not only the meaning of the motif but also the historical and art-historical func­

tion of its meaning — and this, indeed, is an important difference. We can see it very clearly in the entire contemporaneity of its new context. For the motif is used, not — as it is by Spranger — as part of an abstract transhistorical allegory but for the real Watson existing beyond the painting and its frame.

The timeless motif is radically transplanted into time. Thus it becomes nec­

essary to comprehend the timeless motif from within its new context of con­

temporary perception and usage. There is a noticeable gap — a discrepancy not solved in or by the painting — between the real private existence of the protagonist and the religious and nonsecular direction of the motif. It seems to transform the Last Judgment into a secular event and its representation, whether intended or not, into blasphemy.

One might ask, of course, whether the allusion to the Last Judgment was not within the range of Puritan religion and mentality. Might not Watson, in retrospect, have considered his accident in the harbor of Havana the cen­

tral event, the turning point of his life, providing it with new meaning and direction? Despite the physical handicap he had suffered, Watson had again and again been able to start from scratch and to work his way up. Upon returning to Boston after his terrible accident, he learned that his guardian

43

B U S C H

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i or

Egidius Sadeler (Flemish) after Bartholomaus Spranger (Flemish), Triumph of Science over Ignorance and Barbarism, after 1595,

engraving, 49.5 x 35.7 cm.

Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich- Museum, no. AB 2.121.

Photo: B. P. Keiser.

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

h a d r u n away. T h r o u g h c o u r a g e a n d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e W a t s o n h a d n e v e r t h e­

less b e e n able to m a k e s o m e t h i n g of h i m s e l f : h e b e c a m e a h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d B r i t i s h agent, a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t , a n d later, in 1796, he was m a d e L o r d M a y o r of L o n d o n after h e h a d b e e n , for m a n y years, a m e m ­ ber o f the B r i t i s h P a r l i a m e n t . T h u s , w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d to h i m i n H a v a n a m i g h t later h a v e a p p e a r e d as a sign o f h i s e l e c t i o n , of his s a l v a t i o n f r o m E v i l , a s i g n o f G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e a n d of h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e of grace. S u c h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d be s u p p o r t e d b y the fact (of w h i c h the critics have been aware for s o m e t i m e ) that the two f i g u r e s l e a n i n g out o f the boat in the effort to r e s c u e W a t s o n s e e m to b e m o d e l e d after the f i s h e r m e n h a u l i n g in their nets i n R a p h a e l ' s Miraculous Catch, 1514-1515 ( L o n d o n , V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m ) .1 3 A l l t h i s m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n part o f C o p l e y ' s ( a n d W a t s o n ' s ) i n t e n t i o n — yet the way that i n t e n t i o n was p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e is n e v e r t h e l e s s h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c .

C o p l e y e v i d e n t l y t r i e d to r e c o n c i l e classical f o r m a n d i n d i v i d u a l p a r ­ t i c u l a r i t y . T h e h i g h e s t o b j e c t i v i t y a n d the h i g h e s t s u b j e c t i v i t y were to be b r o u g h t together in a c o h e r e n t f o r m of representation. O n e m a y d o u b t , h o w ­ ever, w h e t h e r s u c h r e c o n c i l i a t i o n was i n d e e d possible. T h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of a p p l y i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e of i c o n o g r a p h y to the p r i v a t e event d e p e n d e d o n the a u d i e n c e — a n d the a u d i e n c e d e c i d e d a c c o r d i n g to p e r ­ sonal taste o r p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n . Seen aesthetically, however, t h e r e is a d i s ­ c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n f o r m a n d c o n t e n t ; at least we are aware of t h e i r r a t h e r tentative c o n n e c t i o n . T h e C h r i s t i a n i m a g e a n d m o t i f b e c o m e m e r e f o r m u l a , in R e y n o l d s ' s sense, a m e r e w o r d in the v o c a b u l a r y of H i g h A r t , w h o s e m a i n f u n c t i o n n o w consists of e n n o b l i n g its s e c u l a r a n d p r o s a i c subject. S u c h e n n o b l i n g s e e m e d i n d e e d n e c e s s a r y s i n c e r e p o r t a g e h a d n o artistic v a l u e in t h e eyes o f t h e p u b l i c . In o t h e r w o r d s , the p u b l i c ' s c o n c e p t i o n of art r e m a i n e d c o n v e n t i o n a l , that is, the p u b l i c d e m a n d e d m o r e f r o m art t h a n what it was c o n s c i o u s l y w i l l i n g to allow.

Let m e test this assertion by b r i e f l y l o o k i n g at West's Death of General Wolfe. West's strategy is the s a m e as C o p l e y ' s : not o n l y is the m a i n f i g u r e m o d e l e d after a C h r i s t i a n p r o t o t y p e but in its c o m p o s i t i o n the w h o l e p a i n t ­ i n g is an i m i t a t i o n of a c o m p l e t e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l s c h e m e . I n a C h r i s t i a n c o n ­ text this m e t h o d of transference is the m e t h o d of t y p o l o g y , of p r e f i g u r a t i o n . In West's case, it has o b v i o u s l y been s e c u l a r i z e d , to say the least. In e n n o ­ b l i n g h i s t h e m e , West a c t u a l l y r e t u r n s to o n e of the m o s t e l e v a t e d f o r m u l a s of C h r i s t i a n art — the t y p e of the L a m e n t a t i o n of C h r i s t . J u s t as Saint J o h n

45

BUSCH

o r t h e M a r y s a s s e m b l e a r o u n d C h r i s t , so t h e s o l d i e r s s u r r o u n d W o l f e , w h o is r e n d e r e d e n t i r e l y i n t h e p o s e of the d y i n g C h r i s t , a p o s e that was w e l l k n o w n i n E n g l a n d t h r o u g h the t r a d i t i o n o f A n t h o n y v a n D y c k ( f i g . 5): the b o d y e l e g a n t l y s w e r v e d , the left a r m h a n g i n g d o w n in a c u r v e a n d s u p p o r t e d by an a n g e l o r by o n e of the M a r y s , the eyes r a i s e d in t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n u p w a r d t o w a r d t h e sky, w h i c h has o p e n e d after the battle, a n n o u n c i n g a n e w day.

I n t h e B a r o q u e t r a d i t i o n , t h i s is t h e l o c u s o f d i v i n e s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n — in West's p a i n t i n g the d i s s o l v i n g s m o k e o f t h e battle reveals a s t e e p l e as the s i g n a n d p r o m i s e of s a l v a t i o n . ( T h i s , by the way, is a m o t i f that can be traced to the i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e P r o d i g a l S o n , w h o e x p e r i e n c e s c o n v e r s i o n at the s i g h t of a s t e e p l e . ) L i k e w i s e , W e s t d o e s n o t s t o p h e r e b u t d e m o n s t r a t e s h i s d o w n r i g h t a r t - h i s t o r i c a l awareness a n d i c o n o g r a p h i c a l finesse. T h e m o u r n­

i n g N a t i v e A m e r i c a n n o t o n l y s u p p l i e s a n e x o t i c e l e m e n t o f l o c a l c o l o r but e v o k e s a s p e c i f i c t y p e of the t r a d i t i o n a l s c e n e of l a m e n t a t i o n : the i s o l a t e d f i g u r e of t h e m o u r n i n g Saint J o h n .1 4 T h e p a i n t i n g ' s s e c o n d f i g u r e of i m p o r ­ tance, B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l R o b e r t M o n c k t o n — w h o was W o l f e ' s d e p u t y a n d l i k e h i m was s e v e r e l y w o u n d e d i n the battle — e q u a l l y e v o k e s a v e r y spe­

c i f i c t y p e , n a m e l y , that of the f a i n t i n g M a r y i n t h e scene o f C h r i s t ' s D e s c e n t f r o m the C r o s s . T h i s is a p p a r e n t i n the c u r i o u s r e n d e r i n g o f M o n c k t o n ' s l i m p left a r m , w h i c h h a n g s l o o s e l y o v e r the a r m o f t h e f i g u r e s u p p o r t i n g h i m . I n t h i s case w e c a n n a m e t h e s o u r c e f r o m w h i c h W e s t b o r r o w e d the m o t i f : R e m b r a n d t ' s Deposition, 1634 ( S a i n t P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m ) , o f w h i c h t h e r e e x i s t e d at least o n e c o p y o r v a r i a n t in e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , w h i c h is n o w i n t h e N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of A r t in W a s h i n g ­ ton, D . C . R e m b r a n d t ' s f a i n t i n g M a r y is s u p p o r t e d by h e r c o m p a n i o n s i n p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e w a y that, i n West's p a i n t i n g , the w o u n d e d M o n c k t o n is h e l d u p r i g h t b y h i s o f f i c e r s . H e r e , too, the a d a p t a t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n t y p e r e a c h e s e x t r e m e l y far, a n d it is j u s t as c o m p l e x as in C o p l e y ' s case. W e m a y e v e n a s s u m e that C o p l e y a n d W e s t d i s c u s s e d this m e t h o d of i m a g e f o r m a ­ t i o n . A s m a l l d e t a i l w o u l d s e e m t o c o n f i r m this. I n West's Wolfe, the assist­

i n g f i g u r e to t h e r i g h t — a g r e n a d i e r m e a n t to r e p r e s e n t the m o u r n i n g of the c o m m o n s o l d i e r — is m o d e l e d , as C h a r l e s M i t c h e l l o b s e r v e d s o m e t i m e ago,1 5 a f t e r t h e f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f C h a r l e s L e B r u n ' s Compassion, d o w n to t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of the h e a d a n d the c a s c a d i n g hair. N o w o n d e r West r e s o r t e d to a classical t y p e of t h e p a s s i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y for the r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n of a f i g u r e that d i d n o t n e e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y of p o r t r a i t u r e . T h i s tall f i g u r e s t a n d i n g in t h e f o r e g r o u n d strikes the p s y c h i c n o t e r e q u i r e d h e r e ,

COPLEY. WEST, AND THE T R A D I T I O N OF EUROPEAN H I C H A R T

5. A n t h o n y van D y c k (Dutch).

The Lamentation of Christ (Pieta), 1634, oil on wood, 108.7 x 149.3 c m-

M u n i c h . A l t e P i n a k o t h e k . no. 606.

47

La, Cy^vnte:

'Ka J9

6. Detail of figure 1. Photo: Markus H i l b i c h . 7. Charles L e B r u n (French),

Dread {La Crainle), 1698, engraving, 9 x 5.5 cm.

From Charles Le B r u n , Methode pour apprendre a dessiner lespassions (Amsterdam:

Francois van der Plaats, 1702), fig. 18.

Santa Monica, T h e Getty Center for the

C O P L E Y , W E S T , A N D T H E T R A D I T I O N O F E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

mk

^Ji f^C?

W 9

c&mrument avec frayeur 7b

8. D e l a i l o f f i g u r e l . P h o t o : M a r k u s H i l b i c h .

C h a r l e s L e B r u n ( F r e n c h ) , Astonishment with Fright (Etonnement avec Fraveur), i 6 g 8 , e n g r a v i n g , 9.1 x 5 . 3 c m .

F r o m C h a r l e s L e B r u n , Methode pour apprendre a dessiner lespassions ( A m s t e r d a m : F r a n c o i s v a n d e r P l a a t s , 1702), f i g . 35.

S a n t a M o n i c a . T h e G e t t y C e n t e r f o r t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t a n d t h e H u m a n i t i e s .

B U S C H

t r u e to L e o n B a t t i s t a A l b e r t i ' s a n c i e n t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n .1 6

C o p l e y a p p l i e s this m e t h o d o f g u i d i n g the viewer's r e a c t i o n to the p a i n t­

i n g b y w a y o f t h e classical t y p o l o g y of t h e p a s s i o n s to h i s Watson, m a k i n g u s e o f t h e s a m e s o u r c e that W e s t h a d u s e d : L e B r u n ' s treatise o n the pas­

s i o n s . T h i s m a y e x p l a i n the v e r y p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n o f t h e n e w s p a p e r s to C o p l e y ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of e m o t i o n i n the d i f f e r e n t faces of the f i g u r e s i n the b o a t . T h u s t h e L o n d o n Morning Chronicle w r o t e that the face o f the b l a c k m a n " i s a f i n e i n d e x of c o n c e r n a n d horror."1 7 H e n c e , C o p l e y w o u l d s e e m to h a v e r e a c h e d the h i g h e s t l e v e l i n t h e classical r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the p a s s i o n s , n a m e l y , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s o - c a l l e d m i x e d p a s s i o n s . If w e e x a m i n e this i n m o r e d e t a i l , w e see that t h e facial e x p r e s s i o n s of t h e boat's crew l a r g e l y f o l l o w L e B r u n ' s p r o t o t y p e s . T h u s the f i g u r e o n the left h a l f - s t a n d i n g i n the b o a t (fig. 6), is m o d e l e d o n L e B r u n ' s Dread (fig. 7); t h e o l d m a n h o l d i n g by the shirt o n e of the two f i g u r e s l e a n i n g o u t of the boat (fig. 8) is c l e a r l y a n i m i t a t i o n o f L e B r u n ' s Astonishment with Fright (fig. g), as e v i ­ d e n c e d e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s r o u n d , o p e n m o u t h . T h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n Dread a n d Astonishment with Fright is q u i t e l o g i c a l . T h e m a n o n the left l o o k s o n l y at W a t s o n a n d fears for h i m , w h i l e the o l d m a n stares at the m o n ­ strous s h a r k that e m e r g e s d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f h i m , h i s f r i g h t m i x e d w i t h w o n d e r at its h u g e d i m e n s i o n . W i t h i n the f r a m e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t h o u g h t this m a y h a v e s u g g e s t e d to the v i e w e r the e x p e r i e n c e of t h e s u b l i m e , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to E d m u n d B u r k e ' s f a m o u s treatise of 1757, On the Sublime and Beautiful, is a c a t e g o r y of h i g h a e s t h e t i c v a l u e . I n contrast to the b e a u t i f u l , it r e s u l t s f r o m o u r r e a c t i o n to s o m e t h i n g d a n g e r o u s l y p o w e r f u l that is yet d i s t a n t e n o u g h for u s to feel safe f r o m its e n e r g y of d e s t r u c t i o n .

C o p l e y h a d l e a r n e d h i s lesson i n t h e l a n g u a g e of E u r o p e a n classical art.

H e s e e m s to h a v e k n o w n its c o m p l e x i c o n o g r a p h y , its r e p e r t o i r e o f f o r m a l c o n v e n t i o n s , a n d its t y p o l o g y o f the p a s s i o n s . H e a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n so f u l l y a w a r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y aesthetics that h i s w o r k m a y be c o n s i d e r e d a c o n s c i o u s e x e r c i s e " i n s u b l i m i t y . " T h a t h e also q u o t e d w e l l - k n o w n f o r m u ­ las a n d c o n s u l t e d L e B r u n like a d i c t i o n a r y , m a y be s h o w n b y two c o m p l e t e l y l i t e r a l r e n d i t i o n s . I n Watson, t h e s a d o a r s m a n s t a r i n g t h r o u g h the legs of t h e S a i n t M i c h a e l - t y p e is p l a c e d so that h i s r i g h t e y e r e m a i n s c o n c e a l e d . T h e face of L e B r u n ' s Sadness (Tristesse), i n the i l l u s t r a t i o n of his treatise, is in l a r g e p a r t c o m p l e t e l y h i d d e n — j u s t as it is in C o p l e y ' s o a r s m a n — b y the s h a d o w o f t h e n o s e . L e B r u n ' s i l l u s t r a t i o n s s e e m to h a v e b e e n s a c r o s a n c t to C o p l e y e v e n i n t h e i r s m a l l e s t d e t a i l . T h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e for the h e r o w i t h

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

the l a n c e (fig. 10): his p r o f i l e w i t h its w i d e - o p e n e y e — w h i c h is not c o m­ p l e t e l y l o g i c a l i n the c o n t e x t of the p i c t u r e — d u p l i c a t e s , in fact, L e B r u n ' s Contempt (fig. n ) . C o n t e m p t vis-a-vis the m o n s t e r s h a r k m a y be the suitable r e s p o n s e of a h e r o , yet o n the aesthetic level these p a i n f u l l y exact r e p e t i ­ tions f r o m L e B r u n s e e m e v i d e n c e a l m o s t of the c o n s c i o u s n e s s of a h i s t o r i - cist — as if a b o o k of s a m p l e s h a d b e e n o p e n e d . A p p a r e n t l y R e y n o l d s was r i g h t : E u r o p e a n art h a d b e c o m e "a d e a d l a n g u a g e , " w h i c h — as C o p l e y also s e e m s to have b e l i e v e d — h a d to be r e v i v e d .1 8

C o n t e m p o r a r i e s , h o w e v e r , n o t i c e d the d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the t r a d i ­ t i o n a l t y p e s a n d the n e w c o n t e x t of their a p p l i c a t i o n . West's Wolfe — w h i c h a l r e a d y h a d its predecessors — p r o d u c e d a f l o o d of representations of h e r o i c deaths, all of t h e m m o r e o r less f o l l o w i n g the t y p e of the Pieta. A s a reac­

tion to this s p e c i f i c a l l y E n g l i s h i n f l a t i o n there is a r a t h e r m a l i c i o u s carica­

ture of 1792 by R i c h a r d N e w t o n entitled Tasting a Norfolk Dumpling (fig. 12).

I n it the d u k e of N o r f o l k is s h o w n l y i n g o n a table tasting (or rather, testing) the t h r e e d a u g h t e r s of the d u c h e s s of G o r d o n in o r d e r to f i n d the o n e w h o kisses best a n d is best q u a l i f i e d for m a r r i a g e . N e w t o n ' s satire uses the c o m ­ p l e t e s c h e m e of t h e B y z a n t i n e t y p e of the E n t o m b m e n t of C h r i s t (fig. 13), w i t h t h e d e a d C h r i s t o n t h e stone of o i n t m e n t a n d M a r y e m b r a c i n g a n d k i s s i n g h i m (as o n e of the d u c h e s s ' s d a u g h t e r s kisses the d u k e ) w h i l e the o t h e r M a r y s s t a n d a b o u t . T h e target o f N e w t o n ' s wit is a f a s h i o n of h i s t o r i ­ cal p a i n t i n g that m e c h a n i c a l l y c l o a k e d its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of d y i n g h e r o e s w i t h the C h r i s t i a n p r o t o t y p e . N e w t o n m a k e s f u n o f its h o l l o w i d e a l i s m a n d the p r e s u m p t u o u s n e s s of its e n n o b l i n g f o r m u l a s . T h e r o l e of the c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y h e r o is e x p o s e d to p u b l i c d e b a t e a n d thus t h r o w n i n t o d o u b t . I n the case o f West's Wolfe, we can see this in the c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r W o l f e ' s m o n u ­ m e n t a n d in the fact that West's f i g u r a t i o n was c a r i c a t u r e d r e p e a t e d l y .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c a r i c a t u r e p a r a p h r a s i n g t h e B y z a n t i n e t y p e of the L a m e n t a t i o n p r o v e s once m o r e to what an extent the late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was i n d e e d able to see a n d reflect in an art-historical way. T h i s r e f l e c t i o n o n the t r a d i t i o n of art in E n g l a n d began w i t h W i l l i a m H o g a r t h , a n d it is possible that B e n j a m i n W e s t k n e w this. West's r e c o u r s e to C h r i s t i a n i c o n o g r a p h y in his r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the p a i n t i n g ' s c e n t r a l f i g u r e ( a n d of o n e o f its m i n o r o n e s ) has its p r e c e d e n t in H o g a r t h . T h e f i n a l scene of The Rake's Progress, 1735 (fig. 14), enacts to the last d e t a i l a L a m e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t (fig. 15); even Christ's p o t o f o i n t m e n t r e a p p e a r s in t h e s o u p b o w l of the rake. T h e fifth scene of Marriage a la Mode, 1745 (fig. 16), uses, to an even greater extent than

51

B U S C H

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10. Detail of figure 1.

11. Charles Le Brun (French), Contempt {Le Mepris), 1698, engraving, 8.8 x 5 cm.

From Charles Le Brun, Methode pour apprendre a dessiner lespassions (Amsterdam:

Francois van der Plaats, 1702), fig. 9.

Santa Monica, The Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities.

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12. Richard Newton (English), Tasting a Norfolk Dumpling, 1792, etching with some burin, 25.5 x 35.2 cm.

London, Collection of Andrew Edmunds.

13. Ugolino di Neri (Italian).

Entombment {Deposizione), ca. 1325, oil on wood. 40.8 x 58.4 cm.

Berlin, Gemflldegalerie, no. 1635B.

14- W i l l i a m Hogarth (English), The Rake's Progress, Scene 8, Scene in Bedlam, 1735, etching and engraving.

F r o m The Complete Works of William Hogarth ( L o n d o n : T h e L o n d o n Printing and Pub­ lishing Co., 1861-1862?), vol. i, pi. 29.

Santa Monica, T h e Getty Center for the H i s t o r y of Art and the Humanities.

15. Lucas van Leyden (Dutch),

The Lamentation of Christ (Pieta), 1521, engraving, 11.5 x 7.4 cm.

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND THE T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

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d o e s West's p a i n t i n g , the t y p e o f t h e D e p o s i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y R e m b r a n d t ' s v e r s i o n , as c a n b e s e e n i n t h e p o s e of t h e d y i n g p r o t a g o n i s t .1 9

O n e f u r t h e r e x a m p l e of H o g a r t h s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d . H i s Cruelty in Perfection f r o m t h e t h i r d s c e n e o f The Four Stages of Cruelty, 1751, i n w h i c h the m u r d e r e r T o m N e r o — w h o has k i l l e d h i s mistress i n a beastly m a n n e r — is t a k e n p r i s o n e r i n t h e c h u r c h y a r d b y a c r o w d o f i n f u r i a t e d citizens, is m o d e l e d o n the c a p t u r e of C h r i s t . E v e n t h e d i s c i p l e o f C h r i s t , m e n t i o n e d in the B i b l e , w h o loses his g a r m e n t s r e a p p e a r s i n a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t f o r m : h e h a s b e c o m e a c i t i z e n a p p r o a c h i n g in g r e a t haste.2 0

W h a t d o we h a v e h e r e ? T h e b l a s p h e m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a n i c o n o - g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n o r its total loss o f m e a n i n g ? I w o u l d m a i n t a i n that it is n e i t h e r o n e n o r t h e o t h e r . S i n c e t h e m e t h o d of t r a n s f e r is a r a t h e r c o m p l e x o n e , I s h a l l h a v e to f o c u s o n o n e a s p e c t . R e l i g i o u s art h a d n o p l a c e i n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , e v e n if H o g a r t h p a i n t e d a n a l t a r p i e c e o n c e a n d R e y n o l d s t r i e d to r e v i v e it f r o m a n a c a d e m i c p o i n t o f view, w i t h West f o l l o w i n g i n h i s f o o t s t e p s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d r e l i g i o u s art p o u r e d i n t o t h e c o u n t r y — c o l l e c t e d b y a r i s t o c r a t i c c o n n o i s s e u r s . T h e r e l i g i o u s b e c a m e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y an aesthetic o b j e c t — cult, as H o g a r t h r e m a r k e d , was " o u t o f date." I n d e v e l o p i n g its r e p e r t o i r e of f o r m s , classical art h a d m a d e a m p l e u s e of r e l i g i o u s art w i t h its c a n o n i c a l t h e m e s a n d f i g u r a t i o n s . H o g a r t h h a d r e v e a l e d its s y n t a x a n d a p p l i e d it to c o n t e m p o r a r y t h e m e s a n d objects. T h e c o n n o i s s e u r was a b l e to see the sacred subtext w i t h i n the c o n t e m p o r a r y text.

T h i s s t r a t e g y p r o v i d e d aesthetic p l e a s u r e a n d r a i s e d the c o n t e m p o r a r y s u b­

ject to t h e l e v e l o f art i n the c l a s s i c a l sense. T h i s , h o w e v e r , is o n l y o n e s i d e of the p r o b l e m , for it s e e m s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e n o t to r e a l i z e that aesthetic p l e a s u r e g a v e w a y t o a n a w a r e n e s s of the d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l m e a n i n g o f the r e l i g i o u s s c h e m e a n d its c o n t e m p o r a r y a p p l i c a t i o n . C o n t e m p o r a r y e x p e r i e n c e i n c r e a s i n g l y u n d e r m i n e d the v a l u e o f C h r i s t i a n c o n v i c t i o n s as e x a m p l e a n d as n o r m o f a c t i o n . T h u s t h e y b e c a m e o b j e c t s o f h i s t o r i c o r a e s t h e t i c c o n t e m p l a t i o n . L e t m e e m p h a s i z e a g a i n that this h a d r a d i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s for h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g . F o r m a n d m e a n i n g w e r e d r i f t i n g f a r t h e r a n d f a r t h e r a p a r t t h r o u g h o u t the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n d e e d , art was w e l l o n its w a y t o w a r d w h a t w e n o w call aesthetic a u t o n o m y . A f t e r all, this is n o t o n l y a g a i n b u t a loss, t o o .

56

C O P L E Y , W E S T , AND T H E T R A D I T I O N OF E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

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16. William Hogarth (English), Marriage a la Mode, Scene 5, Death of the Earl, 1745, etching and engraving.

From The Complete Works of William Hogarth (London: The London Printing and Pub­

lishing Co., 1861-1862?), vol. 1, pi. 8.

Santa Monica, The Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities.

57

B V S C H

N O T E S

1. T h o m a s W. Gaehtgens, ed., Bilder aus der Neuen Welt: Amerikanische Malerei des 18.

und 19. Jahrhunderts, exh. cat. ( M u n i c h : Prestel, 1988).

2. Sir Joshua R e y n o l d s , Discourses on Art ( L o n d o n : C o l l i e r - M a c m i l l a n , 1966), 244 (Dis­

course 15, 10 D e c e m b e r 1790).

3. J u l e s D . Prown, John Singleton Coplev (Cambridge, Mass.: H a r v a r d Univ. Press, 1966), 2:267, no. 371; Alfred Neumeyer, Geschichte der amerikanischen A/a/erei (Munich: Prestel, 1974), 72-73; Roger Stein, " C o p l e y ' s Watson and the Shark and the Aesthetics in the 1770's," in Calvin Israel, ed., Discoveries and Considerations: Essays on Early American Literature and Aesthetics, Presented to Harold Janta ( A l b a n y : State Univ. of New York Press, 1976), 85-130; Irma B. Jaffe,

"John Singleton Copley's Watson and the Shark" The American Art Journal 9 (May 1977): 15-25;

A n n U h r y A b r a m s , "Politics, Prints, and J o h n Singleton Copley's Watson and the Shark" The Art Bulletin 61 (1979): 265-76.

4. T o mention o n l y the most important: Edgar W i n d , " T h e Revolution in History Paint­

ing," The Journal of the Warburg and Couriauld Institutes 2 (1938/1939): 116-27; Charles Mitchell,

" B e n j a m i n West's Death of General Wolfe and the P o p u l a r History Piece," The Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 7 (1944): 20-33; Werner Busch. Nachahmung als burgerliches Kunstprinzip: Ikonographische Zitate bei Hogarth und in seiner Nachfolge. Studien zur Kunst- geschichte, vol. 7 ( H i l d e s h e i m and New York: Olms, 1977), 68-70; Dennis Montagna, " B e n j a m i n West's The Death of General Wolfe: A Nationalist Narrative," The American Art Journal 13 (Spring 1981): 72-88; A n n U h r y A b r a m s , " T h e Apotheosis of General Wolfe," in idem, The Valiant Hero: Benjamin West and Grand Style History Painting (Washington, D . C . : Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), chap. 8, 161-84; H e l m u t von Erffa and A l l e n Staley, The Paintings of Benjamin West (New H a v e n : Yale Univ. Press, 1986), cat. nos. 93-100.

5. Prown (see note 3), 2:267-74.

6. Von Erffa and Staley (see note 4), 57, 62.

7. Werner Busch, " D i e englische K u n s t des 18. Jahrhunderts," in Werner Busch and Peter Schmoock, eds., Kunst: Die Geschichte ihrer Funktionen (Weinheim and Berlin: Quadriga/Beltz.

1987). 651-52.

8. Horst Woldemar Janson, History ofArt(Ne\v York: Abrams, 1963). 465; and Jan Biatostocki, Stil und Ikonographie: Studien zur Kunstwissenschaft (Dresden: V E B Verlag der Kunst, 1966), 163.

9. O n this aspect of Gericault's Raft of the Medusa, see Wolfgang K e m p . "Kunst wird gesam- melt — K u n s t kommt ins M u s e u m , " in Busch and Schmoock (see note 7), 167-70.

10. P r o w n (see note 3), 7, on c o n t e m p o r a r v press reaction.

11. Von Erffa and Staley (see note 4), cat. nos. 406-408.

12. G e r h a r d Langemeyer and Reinhart Schleier, Bilder nach Bildern: Druckgrafik und die

C O P L E Y . W E S T , A N D T H E T R A D I T I O N O F E U R O P E A N H I G H A R T

Vermittlung von Kunst, exh. cat. (Minister: L a n d s c h a f t s v e r b a n d W e s t f a l e n - L i p p e , 1976), cat.

no. 77. See also R . J. W. Evans a n d Joaneath Spicer, Prag um 1600: Kunst unci Kultur am Hofe Rudolfs II, trans. Petra Kruse, e x h . cat. (Frehen: Luca, 1988), cat. no. 159.

13. N e u m e y e r (see note 3), 72-73. T h e p a i n t i n g also p r o d u c e d different i c o n o g r a p h i c a l associations: J. R i c h a r d Judson, " M a r i n e S y m b o l s of Salvation in the Sixteenth C e n t u r y , " in L u c y Freeman Sandler, ed., Essays in Memory of Karl Lehmann (New Y o r k : Institute of Fine A r t s , New York Univ., 1964), 136-52, saw the g r o u p in the water as imitating the i c o n o g r a p h y of Jonas and thus as a l l u d i n g to the theme of the Resurrection. Even if the reference is not con­

v i n c i n g , the fact that it has been p r o d u c e d by Copley's p a i n t i n g is in itself a case in point. In c o m b i n i n g classical form, a classical claim for validity, and m o d e r n subject matter the p a i n t i n g creates a need for endless i c o n o g r a p h i c a l exegesis and a search for p r o f o u n d m e a n i n g .

14. T h i s type had already been used by H o g a r t h , see Busch (note 4), 5.

15. M i t c h e l l (see note 4), 31.

16. Leon Battista A l b e r t i , On Painting(1436), trans, with introduction a n d notes by John R . Spencer (New H a v e n and L o n d o n : Yale Univ. Press 1966), 78.

17. See P r o w n (note 3), 2:267.

18. See R e y n o l d s (note 2).

19. Busch (see note 4), 3 - 6 , 9-10.

20. Ibid., 11-12; also, i d e m , " D i e A k a d e m i e zwischen a u t o n o m e r Z e i c h n u n g u n d H a n d - werkerdesign — Z u r A u f f a s s u n g der L i n i e u n d der Zeichen i m 18. f a h r h u n d e r t , " in Herbert Beck, Peter C. B o l , and Eva M a e k - G e r a r d , eds., Ideal und Wirklichkeit der bildenden Kunst im spaten 18. Jahrhundert, Frankfurter Forschungen zur Kunst, vol. 11 (Berlin: M a n n , 1984), 183-87.

59