Originalveroffentlichung in: Master Drawings 30, Nr. 7, 7992, S. 83-108,
Salviati, Vasari, and the Reuse of Drawings in their
Working Practice
Alessandro Nova
T h e repetition o f standard stock figures, o n e o f the m o s t characteristic features o f the art w e are n o w ac
c u s t o m e d t o calling M a n n e r i s m , has largely been o v e r l o o k e d in the m o s t recent discussions o f maniera o r the
"stylish style."1T h e p u r p o s e o f this article is t o e x a m i n e this practice in the w o r k s o f t w o w e l l - k n o w n sixteenth- century artists w h o were also close friends, Francesco Salviati and G i o r g i o Vasari.
T h e use a n d reuse o f standard m o d e l s , o r the practice b y w h i c h an artist refers to earlier w o r k b y others or b y h i m s e l f t h r o u g h the systematic e x p l o i t a t i o n o f stock figures, is restricted neither t o M a n n e r i s m n o r to six
teenth-century art. H o w e v e r , it is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g here in s o m e detail for t w o principal reasons: first, it is i m p o r tant t o establish h o w the art o f q u o t a t i o n a n d s e l f - q u o t a tion changes w i t h t i m e and place, or, in other w o r d s , h o w it is used a n d u n d e r s t o o d b y the artists and b y the audiences o f a specific geographical area a n d / o r at a spe
cific t i m e ; a n d second, because the art o f q u o t a t i o n and self-quotation reveals the w a y in w h i c h d r a w i n g w a s conceived d u r i n g a g i v e n era.2
Q u o t a t i o n a n d self-quotation are features c o m m o n t o m a n y historical periods a n d m a n y different cultures.
B o t h were e m p l o y e d prior t o the Renaissance as, for e x a m p l e , the late m e d i e v a l pattern b o o k tradition s h o w s . A g n o l o G a d d i , t o n a m e o n l y o n e artist, offers a perfect p a r a d i g m for this practice; his representations o f C o r o
nations often portray Christ and the V i r g i n in the same pose and s o m e t i m e s dressed in almost identical robes.3
B u t these were m o s t l y iconographic c o n v e n t i o n s as other Florentine paintings o f the fourteenth century demonstrate.4
Here, h o w e v e r , I a m m o r e concerned w i t h the reuse o f a specific figure (or figures) in different contexts, whether in oil paintings or in fresco cycles, than w i t h the issue o f fixed iconography. W h i l e q u o t a t i o n and self- quotation are c o m m o n to m a n y sixteenth-century paint
ers, Vasari and Salviati are unusual in their frequent and s o m e t i m e s overindulgent habit o f referring t o their ear
lier w o r k . B o t h artists p r o b a b l y inherited this practice f r o m the masters w i t h w h o m they b o t h had studied, A n d r e a del Sarto and Baccio Bandinelli, but it seems that Vasari and Salviati t o o k this m e t h o d to the extreme.
W h a t is so remarkable about their artistic procedure is the sheer quantity, or exploitation, i f y o u w i s h , o f self- quotation, w h i c h often reduced their paintings t o pas
tiches m a d e u p o f several individual figures derived f r o m a n u m b e r o f previous w o r k s .
W i t h o u r first e x a m p l e b y Salviati, w e briefly re-enter the field o f replicas o f the s a m e subject, here considered to be a different practice f r o m the assemblage o f a variety o f figures pieced together. Vasari i n f o r m s us that a rich Florentine merchant active in France, T o m m a s o G u a - dagni, c o m m i s s i o n e d Salviati to paint a Doubting Thomas
I
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(Fig. i ) for his f a m i l y chapel in the church o f t h e j a c o b i n s in L y o n s .5 T h i s altarpiece, n o w in the M u s e e d u L o u v r e , Paris, has correctly been dated t o b e t w e e n 1545 a n d 1548.6 A d r a w i n g (Fig. 2), or rather a modello, also in the L o u v r e , has rightly been connected w i t h the painting.7
T h e d r a w i n g includes revealing a n d hitherto o v e r l o o k e d i n f o r m a t i o n about Salviati's w o r k i n g m e t h o d .
A t the b o t t o m o f the sheet is an inscription in a s i x - teenth-century hand, w h i c h states that the modello w a s executed b y the Florentine painter M i c h e l a n g e l o alias Salviati a n d that it reproduces his project for the altar- piece p r o m i s e d b y the artist to his patron, A l b i z o del Bene: di Michelagnolo pittorefiorentino alias Salviati dichiaro questo essere I il disegno della tavola d' altare che io [ho]
promesso fare a Albizo del Bene come appare dentro [il] con- tratto rogato per m[esser] Piero Franc[esco] Machalli notaio fiorentino oggi questo di [di] novembre.8 U n t i l n o w scholars
had failed t o read the s u r n a m e o f the patron, w h o i n c i - dentally is recorded in B e n v e n u t o Cellini's a u t o b i o g - raphy as a m e m b e r o f the Florentine c o m m u n i t y l i v i n g in France9; a n d even i f the first n a m e A l b i z o does n o t correspond t o the n a m e o f the patron as stated b y Vasari in his Lives, n o o n e has questioned the connection b e - t w e e n the d r a w i n g and the painting. T h e t w o w o r k s are s o close that there is n o d o u b t a b o u t their direct relation- ship. It is probable, h o w e v e r , that the inscription does n o t refer t o the G u a d a g n i c o m m i s s i o n , but that it relates t o a painting o f the Doubting Thomas in S. G i o v a n n i Decollate), R o m e (Fig. 3). A l t h o u g h usually attributed either t o Vasari or t o Salviati, the latter w o r k w a s cer- tainly designed b y Salviati and a l m o s t entirely executed b y o n e o f his assistants.10 For o u r purposes, h o w e v e r , it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t to discuss the inscription at the b o t - t o m o f the L o u v r e d r a w i n g . T h e first t w o w o r d s are missing: t h e y w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y io Francesco. Therefore, the inscription does n o t say that the d r a w i n g w a s e x e - cuted b y a certain M i c h e l a n g e l o , b u t b y Francesco di M i c h e l a n g e l o . Indeed, Vasari i n f o r m s us that M i c h e l a n -
Figure 5 G I O R G I O V A S A R I .
Standing Figure.
Florence, Uffizi, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe.
g e l o was the n a m e o f Salviati's father and therefore this is the o n l y s u r v i v i n g autograph inscription b y Salviati.
B u t it is even m o r e interesting to note that the artist h i m - self m a d e an i m p o r t a n t addition: the frame. H e pasted the original d r a w i n g o n t o another sheet and d r e w this f r a m e around it.11 Since this addition corresponds t o the design o f the f r a m e s u r r o u n d i n g the altarpiece in S.
G i o v a n n i Decollato, it is likely that the d r a w i n g o r i g i - nally executed for T o m m a s o G u a d a g n i w a s reused b y the artist a few years later for this n e w c o m m i s s i o n in R o m e .1 2
A p p r o x i m a t e l y five years after the G u a d a g n i altar- piece, Salviati recast the figure o f St. T h o m a s for his celebrated fresco cycle in the Ricci-Sacchetti Palace in R o m e (Fig. 4). T h e scene represents the g h o s t o f Samuel appearing to K i n g Saul in the hut o f the w i t c h o f E n d o r . It is likely that Salviati w a s m o v e d t o use the s a m e c o m - position because the episode concerned another s u p e r - natural apparition, but it is revealing o f his studio prac- tice that the artist did n o t c o n f i n e h i m s e l f t o arranging the h v e principal figures in a r o u g h l y similar w a y : i n - deed, he w e n t s o far as t o q u o t e exactly the kneeling St.
T h o m a s o f the G u a d a g n i altarpiece in the final cartoon for the scene o f the Ricci-Sacchetti cycle.13
It is not difficult to find a n a l o g o u s w o r k i n g m e t h o d s in the octwre o f G i o r g i o Vasari. In the last phase o f his career, Vasari w a s i n v o l v e d in the renovation o f S. M a r i a N o v e l l a and S. C r o c e according to the n e w C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n decrees. A m a j o r part o f this considerable undertaking w a s d e v o t e d t o the decoration o f the f a m i l y chapels o f the M e d i c e a n aristocracy w i t h n e w altarpieces executed b y Vasari h i m s e l f and the artists o f his e n t o u r - age. In 1572 Vasari executed the Christ on the Way to Calvary for the B u o n a r r o t i C h a p e l . T h e soldier at the right w a s repeated b y Vasari o n e year later in his fresco for the Sala Regia in the Vatican depicting the w o u n d e d A d m i r a l C o l i g n y . In b o t h cases, the figure p e r f o r m s a realistic action and the m o d e l w a s reused w i t h i n a short space o f time.1 4
Vasari's d r a w i n g o f a Standing Figure in the G a b i n e t t o D i s e g n i e Stampe degli U f f i z i , Florence (Fig. 5), is p a r - ticularly interesting, because instead o f depicting a real- istic action, the figure is purely decorative. T h e painter seems to have used this figure as a m o d e l frequently s i m p l y because he m u s t have t h o u g h t h i g h l y o f its visual
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i m p a c t . T h e d r a w i n g in the U f f i z i w a s p r o b a b l y first executed for the Deposition in C a m a l d o l i , painted in 1540 (Fig. 6). Subsequently, Vasari reused the s a m e figure t w i c e m o r e : in 1546, at the v e r y left, in the fresco Homage of the Nations to Paul III in the Sala dei C e n t o G i o r n i , Palazzo della Cancelleria, R o m e (Fig. 7 ) , a n d in 1 5 4 8 - 4 9
w h e n he painted the gigantic Marriage of Esther n o w in the Pinacoteca in A r e z z o (Fig. 8), w h e r e an identical figure is again standing t o the left o f center.15
Salviati likewise m a d e frequent use o f the s a m e stock figure in different contexts. For e x a m p l e , the splendid d r a w i n g representing a Roman Soldier, n o w in the British M u s e u m , L o n d o n (Fig. 9), w a s certainly created for the soldier standing at the right in the Martyrdom of St. Law- rence o f 1 5 4 8 - 5 0 , in the Cappella del Pallio (Fig. 1 0 ) . T h e identical m o d e l h a d p r e v i o u s l y been e m p l o y e d b y the artist for the figure o f C a m i l l u s at the right e d g e o f the fresco depicting the Punishment of the Schoolmaster of Falerii o f about 1547, in the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r o f the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence (Fig. 11). Finally, the soldier reappears in the Beheading of St. John the Baptist in the O r a t o r y o f S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t o — a fresco entirely e x e - cuted b y an assistant using Salviati's designs, in 1553 (Fig. 12).16 T h e s a m e m o d e l w a s therefore reused b y Salviati and his circle at least three times in less than ten years and it is p r o b a b l y n o coincidence that i n each c o m - position, the figure always p e r f o r m s the s a m e function:
that o f a R o m a n soldier ordering an execution.1 7
I d e n t i f y i n g these recurring m o d e l s in Salviati's and Vasari's paintings m a y seem a divertissement, b u t it w o u l d be u n w i s e t o underestimate the significance o f the exer- cise. Indeed, it m a y account for the apparent i n c o n g r u i t y b e t w e e n t w o sets o f data: o n the o n e h a n d , an artist like Salviati executed n u m e r o u s and gigantic fresco cycles, w h i l e o n the other, it is rare t o find preparatory drawings for these very large undertakings. M o r e o v e r , Salviati w a s o n e o f the m o s t talented d r a u g h t s m e n o f his g e n e r - ation a n d a considerable p r o p o r t i o n o f his prolific o u t - put has survived. T h u s , the lack o f preparatory studies requires s o m e explanation, since it is u n l i k e l y that their absence can be ascribed entirely t o f o r t u i t o u s c i r c u m - stances such as the disappearance o f these studies d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g centuries. Rather, it is p r o b a b l e that Sal- viati consistently reused m o d e l s created f o r his other paintings as well as b o r r o w e d f r o m other artists.18
Figure 8 G I O R G I O V A S A R I .
M a r r i a g e o f E s t h e r (detail).
Arezzo, Pinacoteca. From Barocchi, Vasari Pittore, Milan, 1964.
I c a m e t o the c o n c l u s i o n that Salviati m a d e continual re-use o f his m o d e l s m a n y years ago w h e n w r i t i n g m y dissertation o n the painter's masterpiece, the decoration o f the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r in the Ricci-Sacchetti Palace in R o m e .1 9 T h e hall is vast, the walls are covered w i t h c r o w d e d scenes depicted o n trompe-l'oeil paintings and C h i n e s e scrolls (a tribute t o the taste o f the patron w h o w a s a collector o f C h i n e s e art), and the enterprise w a s certainly a m a j o r a n d d e m a n d i n g task.20 Yet, in the rich corpus o f Salviati's drawings, n o t a single sheet can sec- urely b e connected w i t h this cycle. Nevertheless, I have been able t o i d e n t i f y five sources related to the project, a l t h o u g h s o m e o f these are n o t such precise quotations as I w o u l d have liked. B e g i n n i n g w i t h the end wall o v e r - l o o k i n g the V i c o l o del C e f a l o , Salviati painted t w o ignudi a b o v e the personification o f the G r e e k Kairos. A l t h o u g h
the p o s e is reversed, the ignudo o n the right derives f r o m a d r a w i n g b y B a c c i o Bandinelli in the L o u v r e , w h i c h w a s itself inspired b y a R o m a n relief o f Hercules on the Pyre; that o n the left is a precise quotation after a figure painted b y A n d r e a del Sarto in the b a c k g r o u n d o f his Sacrifice of Isaac in the Gemaldegalerie, Dresden.2 1 It is m o v i n g that Salviati's m o s t successful w o r k contains such a clear h o m a g e to his m o s t i m p o r t a n t teachers.
T h e splendid draperies in the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r bearing the Cardinal's attributes—a series o f h e d g e h o g s (a pun o n the f a m i l y n a m e o f Cardinal R i c c i ) — a r e based o n a d r a w i n g originally executed for the Palazzo V e c - chio, Florence, and n o w in the collection o f the late Philip Pouncey.2 2 T h e fourth quotation that I have i d e n - tified is the St. T h o m a s subsequently transformed into K i n g Saul, m e n t i o n e d a b o v e (see Figs. 1-4).
Figure 9 F R A N C E S X O S A L V I A T I .
R o m a n Soldier.
London, British Museum (Reproduced by Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum).
A s far as Salviati's w o r k i n g m e t h o d is concerned, h o w e v e r , the fifth q u o t a t i o n is the m o s t instructive. I n the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r o f C o s i m o de' M e d i c i in the Palazzo Vecchio, Salviati's fresco the Triumph of Camil- las depicts a retinue led b y a y o u n g m a n h o l d i n g an e n o r m o u s k e y (Fig. 13). A d r a w i n g related to this figure is in the U f f i z i (Fig. 14). T h e sheet is so b a d l y d a m a g e d that it is difficult to reach a decision a b o u t its exact status:23 w h i l e it m a y b e a c o p y executed in Salviati's w o r k s h o p , it nevertheless p r o v i d e s evidence that a m o d - el o f this k i n d existed, and that it m u s t have been kept in the artist's p o r t f o l i o . Indeed, a f e w years later, Salviati used the s a m e d r a w i n g for Saul Attempting to Kill David, i n the fresco cycle o f the Ricci-Sacchetti Palace in R o m e (Fig. 15). T h e sequence is instructive because it does n o t i n v o l v e p r o b l e m s o f c h r o n o l o g y . H o w e v e r , I w a s f o r t u - nate e n o u g h t o m a k e these discoveries in reverse c h r o n o - logical order. W h e n s t u d y i n g the Ricci frescoes, I first noticed the elegant, dancing figure o f K i n g Saul. T h e n I f o u n d the d r a w i n g in the U f f i z i and noticed the great k e y held in the figure's left hand. Finally, I realized that the d r a w i n g w a s n o t preparatory for the Ricci frescoes,
but rather for the cycle in the Palazzo Vecchio, an o b s e r - v a t i o n published earlier b y Iris Cheney.2 4 Yet, to have m a d e these connections independently w a s e x t r e m e l y useful since it w a s o n l y in this w a y that I c o u l d reflect o n the absurd pose o f Saul. I f I h a d i m m e d i a t e l y noticed the p r o t o t y p e in the Palazzo Vecchio, I w o u l d p r o b a b l y have c o n f i n e d m y s e l f t o o b s e r v i n g this q u o t a t i o n in the later fresco. Instead, I had always been struck b y Saul's e m p t y left hand. T h e discovery o f the U f f i z i d r a w i n g and its original purpose therefore clarified the artist's w o r k i n g process. Salviati kept the m o d e l in his p o r t f o l i o , a prac- tice inherited f r o m his teachers A n d r e a del Sarto a n d B a c c i o Bandinelli, but he t o o k to the e x t r e m e their l o v e o f e c o n o m y t h r o u g h repetition: he s i m p l y re-dressed his m o d e l , adding a spear and a c r o w n , and taking away the key. T h e m o v e m e n t o f the king's left hand b e c a m e m e a n - ingless, although neither the artist n o r his patron seem to have been disturbed b y this fact.
T h i s e x a m p l e illustrates perfectly o n e o f the m a i n characteristics o f maniera painting: m i m e t i c verisimili- tude does n o t concern the artist. H e is m o r e interested in exquisite and unrealistic colors, in sophisticated, d e c -
Figure 11 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
P u n i s h m e n t o f the S c h o o l m a s t e r o f Falerii (detail).
Florence, Palazzo Vecchio. Photo: Archivi Alinari.
Figure 12 W o r k s h o p o f F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
B e h e a d i n g o f St. J o h n the B a p t i s t .
Rome, Oratory of S. Giovanni Decollato. Photo: Gahinetto Fotografico Nazionale, Rome.
orative details, a n d in elegant p o s e s — h e r e demonstrated i n Salviati's depiction o f the c r o w n and sandals o f Saul, a n d his graceful, dancing figure.
T o further explore h o w Salviati recast standard figures i n n e w c o m p o s i t i o n s , o n e m u s t e x a m i n e a particular t y p e o f d r a w i n g often p r o d u c e d b y the painter, and c o n - sult a valuable treatise written b y an artist w h o fre- q u e n t e d his circle. O n e d r a w i n g o f this t y p e w i l l suffice f o r an e x a m p l e , a sheet in the A m b r o s i a n a , M i l a n (Fig.
16). In this s t u d y o f a Seated Soldier, the figure is c l u m s i l y d r a w n and the left a r m h a n g s like an artificial l i m b at- tached to the b o d y . Indeed, the figure w a s n o t d r a w n f r o m a live m o d e l , but f r o m a plaster o r clay figurine.2 5
It is unlikely that this a n d similar studies w e r e d r a w n w i t h a specific c o m p o s i t i o n in m i n d ; rather, such d r a w - i n g s w e r e p r o b a b l y kept in the artist's w o r k s h o p as r e a d y - m a d e m o d e l s for i m m e d i a t e use in case o f urgent a n d d e m a n d i n g m a j o r m u r a l c o m m i s s i o n s .
I n this c o n t e x t it is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g a passage f r o m G i o v a n n i Battista A r m e n i n i ' s De' veriprecetti dellapittum, since this i m p o r t a n t source has been entirely o v e r l o o k e d as far as Salviati's w o r k is concerned. T h e author records h o w o n e n i g h t i n R o m e , p r o b a b l y in the early 15 50s, the painter visited t w o French stuccoists, and h o w he c o m - m i s s i o n e d a w a x m o d e l that h a d t o b e based o n o n e o f his d r a w i n g s representing a naked figure, since, as Sal- viati w a s reported t o say, h e w a n t e d t o study the " r e - l i e v o . "2 6 T h i s account reveals an unfamiliar aspect o f sixteenth-century studio practice and it can be linked w i t h another passage in the s a m e treatise in w h i c h A r - m e n i n i explains h o w to plan a great istoria. H i s advice w a s that the artist s h o u l d m a k e m a n y three-dimensional m o d e l s and arrange t h e m o n a horizontal surface. B y m o v i n g t h e m a r o u n d , h e c o u l d then arrive at a clear and original c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e s e w o r d s recall the m e t h o d described b y the C r e m o n e s e painter B e r n a r d i n o C a m p i in his short treatise o n painting published three years earlier; C a m p i , w h o w a s a friend o f A r m e n i n i , also rec- o m m e n d e d the use o f such w a x m o d e l s in planning c o m p o s i t i o n s .2 7 Salviati's request for a similar statuette s h o w s h o w widespread this practice had b e c o m e in C e n - tral Italy. T h e s a m e m e t h o d w a s also n o t e d b y Vasari in his i n t r o d u c t i o n to the Lives, in w h i c h h e recorded that m a n y painters w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o arrange clay figures o n a horizontal surface before d r a w i n g a cartoon for a fresco so as t o understand m o r e clearly the w a y the
s h a d o w s w o u l d fall.28 H o w e v e r , C a m p i ' s short and less w e l l - k n o w n treatise is m o r e useful because it i n f o r m s us in greater detail about the actual procedure f o l l o w e d b y his colleagues. T h e artist, after h a v i n g m a d e as m a n y w a x m o d e l s as the c o m p o s i t i o n required, fixed t h e m o n t o a board using a w a r m iron: in this w a y he c o u l d analyze and, i f h e w i s h e d , change the c o m p o s i t i o n .2 9
T h e r e is little d o u b t that Salviati's w o r k s were created using these m e t h o d s . H e w o u l d organize his istoria b y m o v i n g a r o u n d w a x o r clay puppets executed after his o w n sketches, and in the final cartoon he w o u l d m a k e use o f a series o f stock figures kept in his portfolio. T h i s assemblage o f m a n y independent r e a d y - m a d e m o d e l s c o u l d be based either o n celebrated w o r k s o f art such as, for instance, Michelangelo's Night and Dawn in the M e d i c i Chapel,3 0 or o n Salviati's o w n designs ( w h i c h were rarely d r a w n f r o m life, and m o r e frequently f r o m three-dimensional m o d e l s or earlier sketches).
T h a t Salviati favored this practice o f piecing together figures originally intended for a variety o f projects seems to b e c o n f i r m e d b y a d r a w i n g o f A Kneeling Emperor Presenting the Pope with the Orb of Worldly Power in the C o o p e r - H e w i t t M u s e u m , N e w Y o r k (Fig. 17).31 A s p o i n t e d o u t b y Pouncey, the sketch belongs to Salviati's splendid series for the cycle in the Sala Regia in the V a t - ican, a v e r y late project that, in the end, w a s entrusted to other painters. U n t i l n o w , however, it has not been noticed that the figures in the f o r e g r o u n d were d r a w n o n different pieces o f paper pasted o n t o the original sheet; n o r that the r i v e r - g o d in the l o w e r right-hand corner was originally intended for an earlier Baptism of Christ planned for the O r a t o r y o f S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l - lato.3 2
T h i s "collage" technique m u s t have been a c o m m o n practice in Salviati's studio, and it m i g h t have derived f r o m the m e t h o d s developed b y sixteenth-century g o l d s m i t h s w h o w o u l d often add to their objects a h a n - dle o r a base d r a w n o n a different piece o f paper in order to explore n e w solutions and t o g i v e m o r e variety to their standard designs. ( A s is well k n o w n , Salviati had trained as a g o l d s m i t h . ) O f course, this does n o t m e a n that the artist did not p r o d u c e general c o m p o s i t i o n a l sketches before starting his paintings. It is true, h o w e v e r , that Salviati seems always to have created his c o m p o s i - tions keeping in m i n d those stock figures that m i g h t easily be used at the cartoon stage. Whereas these stock
figures were interchangeable, as the f o l l o w i n g a n d last e x a m p l e s h o w s , the creative process remained the same, thus contributing t o the abstract quality o f Salviati's final products.
Vasari i n f o r m s us that w h i l e the y o u n g Francesco w a s in the service o f Cardinal G i o v a n n i Salviati in R o m e , his patron asked h i m t o d r a w a red chalk modello represent- ing David Anointed by Solomon.33 T h e d r a w i n g , w h i c h served as a m o d e l for an inlay b y the celebrated Fra D a m i a n o , is unfortunately lost, but the c o m p o s i t i o n has been preserved t h r o u g h t w o early copies (see Fig. 1 8 ) .3 4
T h e o l d m a n behind the kneeling D a v i d , leaning o n his stick w i t h his legs crossed, is q u o t e d f r o m o n e o f the figures in Bandinelli's c r o w d e d Martyrdom of St. Law- rence—which is also based o n previous Florentine and classical sources. T h i s m o d e l became o n e o f Salviati's favorite stock figures; at a b o u t the s a m e t i m e it appears o n the right-hand side o f his Visitation ( 1 5 3 8 ) in the O r a t o r y o f S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t e and in its preparatory sketch, n o w in the British M u s e u m (Fig. 19).3:1 A l m o s t ten years later, Salviati designed a tapestry for the Life o f J o s e p h series, c o m m i s s i o n e d b y C o s i m o de' Medici: the subject was J o s e p h Interpreting Pharaoh's D r e a m o f the Fat and Lean Cattle, and the recently discovered pre- paratory d r a w i n g s h o w s the same figure in the right foreground o f the sketch (Fig. 20).16 T h e o l d m a n and the n v e r - g o d figure at his feet were eventually eliminated f r o m the final design, and in the tapestry as finally w o v e n (Fig. 21). T h e y were substituted w i t h t w o figures that, in turn, were later reused in t w o frescoes executed in R o m e .3"
T h e fact that Salviati in the last stage o f his tapestry design adopted an alternative solution does not contra- dict the basic point that the artist a l w a y s designed his c o m p o s i t i o n s in terms o f stock figures. A n especially prestigious c o m m i s s i o n such as a tapestry for C o s i m o de' Medici c o u l d induce Salviati to explore n e w t y p o l - ogies, but this e x a m p l e also s h o w s the t h o u g h t process of the artist w h o nevertheless always started f r o m a ser- ies o f well-tried standard m o d e l s . Indeed, the kneeling J o s e p h and the t w o m e n in the left f o r e g r o u n d o f the
preparatory d r a w i n g for the tapestry did not g o unused, since they reappear in the Doubting Thomas for T o m m a s o G u a d a g n i , painted at about the same t i m e (Fig. 1).
T h i s brief discussion o n the d r a w i n g s and d r a w i n g
[ fM
I
m e t h o d s o f t w o distinguished maniera artists is intended t o address the c o m p l e x question: W h a t w a s the p u r p o s e and m e a n i n g o f this practice o f referring t o earlier w o r k s b y the s a m e artist at different times and in different g e o - graphical areas? A s w e have already seen, for G a d d i a n d his contemporaries, it was the o u t c o m e o f i c o n o g r a p h i c c o n v e n t i o n s . For the Brescian G i a n G i r o l a m o Savoldo, t o g i v e an e x a m p l e f r o m N o r t h Italian painting d u r i n g the first half o f the sixteenth century, w o r k s that e m - p l o y e d self-quotation were determined b y successful d e - votional f o r m u l a s certainly requested or at least favored b y the patrons. For s o m e seventeenth- a n d eighteenth- century painters, the q u o t a t i o n w a s a stimulus and intel- lectual reference for the patron or collector, w h o w a s gratified b y his ability to identify the artist's original source. Is it therefore possible that for Salviati, Vasari, and their followers the use o f self-quotation w a s s i m p l y a practical contrivance in response to p r o b l e m s o f e c o n - o m y ? I w o u l d argue that their most characteristic studio habit, w h i c h was certainly related to practical challenges, cannot, however, be separated f r o m their aesthetic ideal.
D u r i n g the sixteenth century, the rapidity o f e x e c u - tion c a m e to be considered o f positive value as long as it did not c o m p r o m i s e the quality o f the w o r k . In a reveal- ing passage in the preface to the third part o f his Lives, Vasari ventured t o c o m m e n t , w i t h o n e o f his typically rhetorical phrases, that painting had reached such perfec- tion that w h i l e the old masters had taken six years t o execute a panel, his contemporaries were n o w able to paint six panels in o n e year. w Salviati and Vasari were a m o n g the m o s t prolific artists in the history o f painting, yet, although they had well-staffed w o r k s h o p s , they were never able t o rely o n a g r o u p o f assistants as c o m - petent as those active 111 Raphael's studio, for e x a m p l e . In the early stages o f his career Vasari w a s helped by the brilliant C r i s t o f o r o Gherardi and b y P r o s p e r o Fontana.
a m o n g others, but o n l y t o w a r d the end o f his life, w h e n engaged in the decoration o f the Palazzo Vecchio, w a s Vasari surrounded b y m a n y talented assistants. A s far as Salviati is concerned, his m i s a n t h r o p i c and peevish character m a d e h i m unable to tolerate clever assistants and he therefore almost always availed h i m s e l f o f the services o f mediocre painters, the o n l y exception being G i u s e p p e Porta, w h o remained w i t h h i m o n l y for a short period.
Figure 13 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
T r i u m p h o f C a m i l l u s .
Florence, Palazzo Vecchio. Photo: Archivi AHnari.
T o m e e t the extraordinary d e m a n d s o f the Tuscan a n d R o m a n aristocracy, a m o n g w h o m Salviati and Vasari f o u n d their p o w e r f u l and prestigious patrons, b o t h art- ists c o v e r e d the vast wall surfaces o f their patrons' palaces and chapels in a v e r y short t i m e (an e x t r e m e e x a m p l e being the n o t o r i o u s Sala dei C e n t o G i o r n i ) . T h e i r need to execute c o m m i s s i o n s rapidly for a d e m a n d i n g clien- tele, together w i t h a frequent shortage o f qualified assis- tants, m u s t have c o m p e l l e d Vasari, and a b o v e all Salviati, to m a k e repeated use o f the s a m e m o d e l s . Nevertheless, this technique c a n n o t be isolated f r o m its critical and theoretical justification.
C o m m e n t i n g u p o n Perugino's prolific activity, Vasari criticized the f o r m e r ' s thirst for m o n e y , w h i c h forced h i m t o accept t o o m a n y c o m m i s s i o n s and often t o e x e -
cute the same things ("le m e d e s i m e cose").3 9 It is n o t difficult to find clear examples o f Perugino's w o r k s h o p practice in his artistic p r o d u c t i o n . T h e St. Sebastian in the L o u v r e is a replica o f the s a m e saint in the M a r t i n i altarpiece painted for S. D o m e n i c o in Fiesole.40 T h e magnificent St. Michael o f the Certosa p o l y p t y c h , n o w in the National Gallery, L o n d o n (Fig. 22), and based o n D o n a t e l l o ' s St. George, w a s reused for the V a l l o m b r o s a altarpiece o f the Assumption of the Virgin, n o w in the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence (Fig. 23).41
C o n s i d e r i n g Vasari's o w n repetition o f the s a m e m o d - els in different paintings, his criticism o f P e r u g i n o seems rather hypocritical. B u t i f his text is read m o r e carefully, it b e c o m e s clear that his disapproval w a s specifically addressed to the m o n o t o n o u s expressions o f Perugino's
Figure 14 W o r k s h o p o f F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
Y o u n g M a n H o l d i n g a K e y .
Florence, Uffizi, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe.
Figure 15 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
Saul A t t e m p t i n g t o K i l l D a v i d .
Rome, Palazzo Ricci-Sacchetti. Photo: Gabinetto Fotografico Nazionale, Rome.
Figure 16 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
Seated Soldier.
Milan, Ambrosiana.
faces ( V faceva a tutte le figure un'aria m e d e s i m a " ) and the artist's laziness in i n v e n t i n g n e w c o m p o s i t i o n s .4 2
Vasari's criticism o f Perugino's w o r k i n g m e t h o d brings us back t o o u r starting point: that the repetition o f standard m o t i f s - i s n o t an exclusive h a l l m a r k o f the maniera. H o w e v e r , the way in w h i c h these m o d e l s were
reused b y Vasari, Salviati, and their close followers w a s generally different f r o m b o t h preceding and subsequent practice. For Vasari and Salviati, this m e t h o d w a s m o r e acceptable o n l y i f the m o d e l w a s repeated in different contexts. A standard figure c o u l d p e r f o r m the s a m e ac- tion, as is demonstrated b y Salviati's R o m a n soldier o r - d e r i n g an execution, a n d the action c o u l d take place inside a p r e v i o u s l y used architectural/scenographic set- ting, as s o m e o f Vasari's paintings reveal, but it w a s v i - tal that the overall c o m p o s i t i o n challenge the v i e w e r t h r o u g h its variety o f i n v e n t i o n .
Vasari's justification for criticizing P e r u g i n o w a s that his self-quotations lacked i m a g i n a t i o n , that is, P e r u g i n o repeated a St. M i c h a e l f o r a St. M i c h a e l a n d a St. Sebas- tian for a St. Sebastian. M o r e o v e r , his m a n y portrayals o f the B a p t i s m o f Christ w e r e identical, a n d he executed at least three paintings representing the A s s u m p t i o n o f the V i r g i n and the A s s u m p t i o n o f C h r i s t w i t h o u t c h a n g - i n g either the general scheme, or the postures o f the figures. A c c o r d i n g to Vasari, then, Perugino's q u o t a - tions o f the s a m e m o d e l s in the s a m e contexts w e r e responsible f o r his tedious repetition.
T h i s system o f referring to one's earlier w o r k s as d e - v e l o p e d b y Salviati and Vasari w a s , b y contrast, an i n - s t r u m e n t that, at least in theory, h a d as its premise, an entirely different objective. F o r Vasari a n d Salviati, the repetition o f the s a m e m o d e l s w a s n o t s i m p l y a w a y o f saving time a n d labor; rather, it w a s the source for m o r e c o m p l e x inventions. It helped the artist create elaborate c o m p o s i t i o n s that were subsequently enriched b y ele- gant details d u r i n g the execution o f the final c o m m i s s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , the self-quotation w a s intended to facilitate a m o r e elaborate variety o f i n v e n t i o n via a functional e c o n o m y o f m e a n s .
It w a s inevitable, h o w e v e r , that this practice o f piecing together m a n y different figures f r o m earlier designs o f t e n led to artificial and unbalanced c o m p o s i t i o n s . I f a painting is f r a m e d b y a series o f figure quinta, a n d the entire scene is m a d e u p o f r e a d y - m a d e m o d e l s , it f o l - l o w s that the b a c k g r o u n d w i l l n o t b e in h a r m o n y w i t h the central activity o f the scene, a n d w i l l instead be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a quasi-standardized stage b a c k d r o p — indeed a typical feature o f a n y true M a n n e r i s t w o r k . Perugino's paintings can perhaps be considered m o n o t - o n o u s — a s Vasari t h o u g h t — b u t their c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e
98
Figure 17 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
A K n e e l i n g E m p e r o r P r e s e n t i n g t h e P o p e w i t h the O r b o f W o r l d l y P o w e r . New York, Cooper-Hewitt Museum.
c o m p a c t . T h e extraordinary variety that is so charac- teristic o f maniera painting w a s achieved at a high price:
Vasari a n d Salviati t o o k t o the e x t r e m e and almost exhausted a venerable practice b y using it as an instru- m e n t t o execute q u i c k l y and w i t h great facility n e w a n d varied c o m p o s i t i o n s ; but this m e t h o d o f e x p l o i t i n g the possibilities o f the w o r k s h o p tradition led t o an artificial organization o f space that m e a n t that the decorative i m - pact o f the painting w a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t than its c o m - positional structure.
It w a s this lack o f structure that later irritated the Carracci, and i n particular A n n i b a l e , w h o based his anti-
maniera r e f o r m o n a different concept o f d r a w i n g . In the a c a d e m y f o u n d e d b y the Carracci in B o l o g n a , m a n y preparatory figures were d r a w n f r o m life and this re- n e w e d practice o p e n e d u p a n e w era in the history o f art, establishing the pattern for the academic n u d e s t u d y o f the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries.
Salviati and Vasari rarely d r e w f r o m live models;4 3 and there is n o better w a y to illustrate the contrasting a i m s and ideals o f maniera and mti-maniera artists than a c o m - parison o f their distinct w o r k i n g m e t h o d s .
T h e study o f w o r k s h o p practice reveals the w a y in w h i c h d r a w i n g w a s conceived a n d used d u r i n g a g i v e n
Figure 18 A f t e r F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I . D a v i d A n o i n t e d b y S o l o m o n .
Paris, Muse'e du Louvre, Dipartement des Arts Graphiques.
era. O n l y t h r o u g h a p r o f o u n d k n o w l e d g e o f a period's d r a w i n g m e t h o d s can w e understand, n o t m e r e l y the visual strategies p r o m o t e d b y an artist a n d his m i l i e u , but also their aesthetic ideals.
A U T H O R ' S N O T E: I w o u l d l i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e f i n a n c i a l aid g r a n t e d t o this research p r o j e c t b y t h e G e t t y P o s t - D o c t o r a l F e l l o w s h i p a n d the A l e x a n d e r v o n H u m b o l d t S t i f t u n g , a n d t o t h a n k D a v i d E k s e r d j i a n a n d N i c h o l a s P e n n y f o r i n v i t i n g m e t o speak at t h e O x f o r d s y m p o s i u m : an u n f o r t u n a t e fall d o w n the w e l l - w a x e d stairs o f the D e p a r t e m e n t d e s A r t s G r a p h i q u e s at the L o u v r e p r e v e n t e d m e f r o m a t t e n d i n g t h e s y m p o s i u m i n p e r s o n , b u t the present t e x t w a s sent t o t h e o r g a n i z e r s o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e .
1. I n the e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y that has g r o w n u p a r o u n d the c o n c e p t o f M a n n e r i s m a n d the maniera artists, o c c a - sional references t o the practice o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n h a v e a p - peared, b u t the m e t h o d has n e v e r b e e n d i s c u s s e d w i t h i n a w i d e r theoretical f r a m e w o r k . F o r general o b s e r v a t i o n s o n this aspect, see G e o r g W e i s e , // Manierismo. Bilancio critko del problema stilistico e culturale, Florence, 1971 (esp. p p . 3 9 - 5 8 , " M o t i v i p r i n c i p a l i d e l l a s t i l i z z a z i o n e m a n i e r i s t i c a " ) : his e x a m p l e s , h o w e v e r , are e x t r e m e l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s , t h u s
w e a k e n i n g t h e a r g u m e n t . F o r Salviati, see R i c h a r d H a r - p r a t h , " E i n e u n e r k a n n t e Z e i c h n u n g F r a n c e s c o S a l v i a t i s , "
Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, X V I I , 1971, p . 165, w h i c h t o u c h e s o n t h e artist's m e t h o d o f r e u s i n g his o w n studies, a n d M i c h a e l H i r s t , " F r a n c e s c o Salviati's ' V i s i t a t i o n ' , " Burlington Magazine, C I I I , 1961, p . 240. M o r e r e c e n t l y Patricia R u b i n , " T h e P r i v a t e C h a p e l o f C a r d i n a l A l e s s a n d r o Farnese in the C a n c e l l e r i a , R o m e , "
Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, L , 1987, p p . 9 0 - 9 2 , has a n a l y z e d this aspect o f Salviati's practice i n relation t o h i s projects f o r t h e C a p p e l l a del Pallio.
F o r the d e f i n i t i o n o f M a n n e r i s m as " t h e stylish s t y l e , "
see J o h n S h e a r m a n , Mannerism, H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1967, p. 1 9 .
2. I n t h e m o s t recent a t t e m p t t o r e e x a m i n e t h e c o n c e p t o f M a n n e r i s m , J e r o e n S t u m p e l , " S p e a k i n g o f M a n n e r , " Word and Image, I V , 1, 1988, p p . 2 4 6 - 6 4 , has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o the i m p o r t a n c e o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g the w o r k i n g m e t h o d s u s e d b y s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y artists, a n d has t a k e n issue w i t h H e s - sel M i e d e m a o n this k e y p o i n t , w h i c h w a s s u r p r i s i n g l y i g n o r e d i n t h e latter's influential c r i t i q u e o f p r e v i o u s i n - terpretations o f t h e maniera: H e s s e l M i e d e m a , " O n M a n - n e r i s m a n d maniera," Simiolus, 10, 1978-79, p p . 1 9 - 4 5 . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t r e m a r k s o n the stylistic features o f M a n -
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nerist p a i n t i n g are i n C r a i g H u g h S m y t h , Mannerism and Maniera, L o c u s t Valley, N Y , n . d . [1963], a n d S y d n e y J . F r e e d b e r g , " O b s e r v a t i o n s o n the P a i n t i n g o f the maniera"
Art Bulletin, 47, 1965, p p . 187-97.
3. F o r G a d d i ' s v e r s i o n s o f t h e Coronation i n L o n d o n , P r a t o , a n d W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , see B r u c e C o l e , Agnolo Gaddi, O x f o r d , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 8 3 , 8 7 - 8 8 , a n d 8 9 - 9 0 .
4. See, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e Coronation of the Virgin ascribed t o J a c o p o di C i o n e a n d w o r k s h o p i n t h e N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , L o n d o n ( M a r t i n D a v i e s , The Early Italian Schools before 1400, rev. ed. b y D . G o r d o n , L o n d o n , 1988, p p . 4 5 - 4 7 ) , a n d t h e Coronation b y t h e M a s t e r o f t h e Strauss M a d o n n a i n t h e O s p e d a l e d e g l i I n n o c e n t i , F l o r e n c e ( L u c i a n o B e l l o s i , // Museo dello Spedale degli Innocenti a Firenze, M i l a n , 1977, p p . 2 3 2 - 3 3 ) .
5. G i o r g i o Vasari, Le vite de' piii eccellenti pittori, scultori e ar- chitettori, eds. R . B e t t a r i n i a n d P. B a r o c c h i , Florence, 1984, v o l . 5, p . 524. Vasari states that t h e p a n e l w a s c o m m i s - s i o n e d f o r t h e chapel o f t h e F l o r e n t i n e c o m m u n i t y , b u t the altarpiece w a s f o r the f u n e r a r y chapel o f t h e G u a d a g n i f a m i l y as t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p a i n t i n g m a k e s clear: the chapel w a s f o u n d e d b y t h e u n c l e o f T o m m a s o G u a d a g n i , w h o w a s also n a m e d T o m m a s o a n d w h o h a d d i e d i n 1533 (see S y l v i e B e g u i n , Le XVIe siecle jlorentin au Louvre, Paris, 1 9 8 2 , p . 3 9 ) .
6. See Iris C h e n e y , Francesco Salviati (1510-1563), A n n A r b o r ,
I O°3> p . 378- S h e also dates the p a i n t i n g b e t w e e n late A u t u m n 1547 a n d 1548 (p. 204).
7. T h e best d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d r a w i n g is i n C a t h e r i n e M o n - b e i g G o g u e l , Vasari et son temps, Paris, 1972, p . 124, n. 146.
8. I h a v e m o d e r n i z e d t h e Italian s p e l l i n g a n d integrated the t e x t ; f o r a literal t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see M o n b e i g G o g u e l , 1972, p . 1 2 4 , n . 146.
9. See B e n v e n u t o C e l l i n i , La Vita, ed. G . G u a s t i , Florence, 1890, p . 178, w h e r e the artist g i v e s an a c c o u n t o f his k i l l - i n g , i n R o m e , o f t h e M i l a n e s e g o l d s m i t h P o m p e o : " I n fra q u e s t i era il p i u c a r o m i o a m i c o , il q u a l e a v e v a n o m e A l b e r - t a c c i o del B e n e , fratel carnale d i A l e s s a n d r o e d i A l b i z o , il q u a l e e o g g i i n L i o n e g r a n d i s s i m o r i c c o . " T h a t A l b i z o r e s i d e d f o r a certain t i m e i n L y o n s is c o n f i r m e d b y a ricordo o f t h e s a m e C e l l i n i p u b l i s h e d b y G u a s t i i n t h e a p p e n d i x t o t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y (pp. 607-608).
10. T h e S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t e altarpiece, w h i c h is s u r r o u n d e d b y o t h e r frescoes based o n Salviati's d e s i g n s , is u s u a l l y i g n o r e d i n t h e literature o n t h e artist. A c c o r d i n g t o B e g u i n (1982, p. 40), t h e p a i n t i n g is w r o n g l y a t t r i b u t e d t o Vasari.
C h e n e y (1963, p. 392), h o w e v e r , s e e m s t o accept it as a b a s i c a l l y a u t o g r a p h variant: " S e v e r a l p a i n t i n g s in the c h u r c h p r o p e r m a y also h a v e b e e n e x e c u t e d b y Salviati o r h i s assistants a b o u t this t i m e [early 1550s]. T h e r e are a
Doubting Thomas at t h e s e c o n d altar o n t h e r i g h t , w h i c h r e p r o d u c e s Salviati's L o u v r e p a i n t i n g , a n d a Charity, w h i c h is a variant o n Salviati's U f f i z i Charity." I n t w o s l i g h t l y less a m b i g u o u s passages o f h e r c a t a l o g u e , C h e n e y classifies the altarpiece as a " v e r s i o n " o f the L o u v r e p i c t u r e (p. 378), a n d the Charity frescoed a b o v e the w i n d o w as a v a r i a n t b y a p u p i l o r a f o l l o w e r o f Salviati (pp. 153-54).
11. T h e d r a w i n g is b a d l y d a m a g e d a n d the o u t l i n e s o f the f i g u r e s h a v e b e e n g o n e o v e r , p r o b a b l y at a later date.
M o r e o v e r , t h e o r i g i n a l sheet has b e e n r e i n f o r c e d m a n y t i m e s a n d parts o f the f r a m e h a v e b e e n r e d r a w n f o l l o w i n g the o r i g i n a l pattern. H o w e v e r , the n u m e r o u s tears b e - t w e e n the f i e l d o f the c o m p o s i t i o n a n d the d r a w n f r a m e s e e m t o c o n f i r m that the latter w a s a d d e d at a later date b y the artist h i m s e l f .
12. O n e c a n n o t b e a b s o l u t e l y p o s i t i v e i n i d e n t i f y i n g the p a t r o n o f t h e p a i n t i n g i n S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t o as A l b i z o del B e n e . H i s f a m i l y h a d s t r o n g ties w i t h L y o n s , a n d in t h e o r y h e m i g h t s i m p l y h a v e s i g n e d the a g r e e m e n t w i t h Salviati i n the n a m e o f T o m m a s o G u a d a g n i . H o w e v e r , Vasari is e x p l i c i t in r e c o r d i n g that the altarpiece w a s " t a k e n t o F r a n c e " b y G u a d a g n i . It is therefore m o r e l i k e l y that A l - b i z o s a w the p a i n t i n g i n L y o n s ( C e l l i n i ed. G u a s t i , 1890, 607-608), a n d t h e n c o m m i s s i o n e d Salviati t o e x e c u t e a replica. O n l y s y s t e m a t i c research i n the n o t easily accessible archives o f the C o n f r a t e r n i t y can s o l v e this q u e s t i o n , a n d , thus far, the scholars w h o h a v e b e e n p e r m i t t e d t o e x a m i n e these papers (Hirst, Keller, a n d W e i s z ) h a v e n o t f o u n d d o c u m e n t s relating t o this chapel. In a n y e v e n t , there can b e little d o u b t that the L o u v r e d r a w i n g also s e r v e d as a m o d e l f o r the altarpiece in R o m e .
13. O n the R i c c i - S a c c h e t t i cycle, see C a t h e r i n e D u m o n t , Fran- cesco Salviati au Palais Sacchetti de Rome et la decoration murale italienne (1520-1560), G e n e v a , 1973.
14. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f these w o r k s , see M a r c i a B . H a l l , Renovation and Counter-Reformation. Vasari and Duke Cosimo in Sta. Maria Novella and Sta. Croce 1565- 1577, O x f o r d , 1979, p p . 124-26, pi. 40, a n d Weise, 1971, p. 46, figs. 9 1 - 9 2 .
15. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f the d r a w i n g a n d o f the three p a i n t i n g s , see Paola B a r o c c h i , Vasari pittore, M i l a n , 1964, p p . 19, 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 3 - 3 4 ; a n d the c a t a l o g u e e n t r y b y C h a r l e s D a v i s in Principi, letterati e artisti nelle carte di Giorgio Vasari, F l o r - ence, 1981, p. 57.
16. F o r the s t u d y i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m , see N i c h o l a s T u r n e r , Florentine Drawings of the Sixteenth Century, L o n d o n , 1986, p p . 172-73- A s first p o i n t e d o u t b y C h e n e y (1963, p p . 243-44), the Beheading is a true pastiche o f m a n y different sources: 1) the k n e e l i n g f i g u r e o n the l e f t - h a n d side is based o n a d r a w i n g , n o w in the P h i l a d e l p h i a M u s e u m o f A r t , w h i c h served as a modello f o r a s i m i l a r f i g u r e in the tapestry
Figure 20 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
J o s e p h I n t e r p r e t i n g P h a r a o h ' s D r e a m o f the Fat a n d L e a n C a t t l e .
Figure 21 N I C H O L A S K A R C H E R a f t e r F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
J o s e p h I n t e r p r e t i n g P h a r a o h ' s D r e a m o f the Fat a n d L e a n C a t t l e . T a p e s t r y .
Florence, Palazzo Vecchio. From Gli Arazzi della Sala dei Duecento, Modena, 1985.
o f Joseph Interpreting Pharaoh's Dream of the Fat and Lean Cattle (Fig. 21), w h i c h w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d b y C o s i m o d e ' M e d i c i i n F l o r e n c e a n d d e l i v e r e d b y N i c o l a s K a r c h e r ' s w o r k s h o p o n 16 M a y 1548; 2) the f i g u r e o f t h e e x e c u t i o n e r is a precise q u o t a t i o n f r o m o n e o f t h e " e l e c t e d " (the c e l e - brated f i g u r e h o l d i n g t h e r o s a r y ) in M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s Last Judgment, 3) the p o i n t i n g s o l d i e r o n t h e r i g h t , d i s c u s s e d i n
the text; 4) the relief o f a h o r s e m a n i n an o v a l d e c o r a t i n g the r i g h t - h a n d side o f t h e t r i u m p h a l arch i n t h e b a c k - g r o u n d is based o n a d r a w i n g at W i n d s o r that h a d p r e v i - o u s l y b e e n u s e d t o fresco a m o n o c h r o m e m e d a l l i o n i n t h e A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r o f t h e P a l a z z o V e c c h i o i n F l o r e n c e . T o
these e x a m p l e s I w o u l d a d d a f i f t h q u o t a t i o n also d e r i v e d f r o m a p r e v i o u s F l o r e n t i n e p r o j e c t : the f i g u r e at t h e l o w e r right o f the fresco is c o p i e d after the p r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g f o r o n e o f the tapestries o f t h e T a r q u i n a n d Lucretia series c o m m i s s i o n e d b y Salviati's c l o s e f r i e n d C r i s t o f a n o R a n i e r i ( f o r a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f the d r a w i n g , see M o n b e i g G o g u e l , 1 9 7 2 , p. 1 2 1 ) .
T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f r e s c o i n S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t e has b e e n s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e debate: s o m e scholars h a v e a t t r i b u t e d it t o Salviati, a n d o t h e r s t o P i r r o L i g o r i o . M o s t , h o w e v e r , c o r r e c t l y t h i n k that it w a s d e s i g n e d b y Salviati a n d e x e c u t e d b y a p u p i l : R o l f E . Keller, Das Oratorium von San Giovanni Decollato in Rom, N e u c h a t e l , 1976, p p . 1 1 8 - 19, has t e n t a t i v e l y ascribed t h e e x e c u t i o n o f the fresco t o R o v i a l e S p a g n o l o , b u t this a t t r i b u t i o n has b e e n rejected b y b o t h H e r w a r t h R o t t g e n i n his r e v i e w o f K e l l e r ' s b o o k i n Pantheon, X X X V I I I , 1980, p . 196, a n d b y J e a n S. W e i s z , Pittura e Misericordia. The Oratory of S. Giovanni Decollato in Rome, A n n A r b o r , 1984, p . 19. A m o r e l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e is J a n v a n der Straet ( S t r a d a n u s ) : a c c o r d i n g t o R a f f a e l l o B o r g h i n i , II Riposo, 1584, p . 580, the F l e m i s h artist j o i n e d Salviati's w o r k s h o p i n 1550, a n d , as s u g g e s t e d b y A l e s - s a n d r o C e c c h i , " A l c u n e a g g i u n t e e p r e c i s i o n i per il S a l - viati d i s e g n a t o r e , " Antichita viva, X X V I I I , 1989, n o s . 2 - 3 , p. 40, S t r a d a n u s is k n o w n t o h a v e d r a w n f r o m Salviati's m o d e l s .
17. H o w e v e r , i n a d r a w i n g that r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d o n the art m a r k e t i n H a m b u r g {An Offering to a Ruler, p e n a n d b r o w n i n k , b r o w n w a s h , o n w h i t e paper, 200 x 260 m m . ) , t h e s a m e m o d e l is e n g a g e d i n a different a c t i o n (see F i g . 24):
t h e s o l d i e r s e e m s t o r e s p o n d t o an o f f e r i n g , a n d h i s p o s e is e v e n closer t o t h e f i g u r e o f A l e x a n d e r i n t h e m o n o c h r o m e f r e s c o u n d e r R a p h a e l ' s Parnassus i n t h e S t a n z a della S e g n a - tura t h a n t o t h e p o s e o f the s o l d i e r i n t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m d r a w i n g . I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k T h o m a s L e C l a i r e , H a m - b u r g , f o r s e n d i n g m e a p h o t o g r a p h o f this n e w i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n t o Salviati's oeuvre.
18. A c c o r d i n g t o H i l d e g a r d B u s s m a n n , Vorzeichnungen Fran- cesco Salviatis. Studien zum zeichnerischen Werk des Kiinstlers, B e r l i n , 1969, p . 18, a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e f o u r t h o f t h e artist's d r a w i n g s c a n b e related t o d o c u m e n t e d w o r k s , b u t her e s t i m a t e is n o t accurate. M o r e o v e r , d u r i n g the t w e n t y years f o l l o w i n g her dissertation, m a n y u n p u b l i s h e d sheets h a v e a p p e a r e d o n the art m a r k e t , a n d o n l y a f e w can f i r m l y b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h k n o w n w o r k s . A m o n g the latter are:
t h e modello o f a m a n " i n classical d r e s s " ( L o n d o n , S o t h e - b y ' s , 9 A p r i l 1981, l o t n o . 76; Y v o n n e T a n B u n z l , Old Master Drawings, L o n d o n , 1984, n o . 9), w h i c h , as w a s p o i n t e d o u t t o m e b y D a v i d E k s e r d j i a n , is a p r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g f o r o n e o f t h e A p o s t l e s i n t h e Pentecost o f S. M a r i a dell' A n i m a i n R o m e (the d r a w i n g is n o w i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f J e f f r e y E . H o r v i t z ; see L i n d a W o l k - S i m o n , Italian Old Master Drawings from the Collection of Jeffrey E. Horvitz, e x h . cat., C a m b r i d g e , M A , M o n t r e a l , a n d e l s e w h e r e ,
[ 104 ]
Figure 22 P I E T R O P E R U G I N O .
St. M i c h a e l .
London, National Callery. From E. Camesasca, V opera com- plete del P e r u g i n o , Milan, 1969.
Figure 23 P I E T R O P E R U G I N O .
A s s u m p t i o n o f the V i r g i n .
Florence, Galleria dell'Aaademia. From E. Camesasca, V opera c o m p l e t a del P e r u g i n o , Milan, 1969.
1991, p p . 15-18, n o . 4); t w o p r e l i m i n a r y studies f o r the P a l a z z o Farnese cycle ( L o n d o n , C h r i s t i e ' s , 9 D e c e m b e r 1982, l o t n o s . 28 a n d 29, the first recently e x h i b i t e d b y K a t r i n B e l l i n g e r at H a r a r i & J o h n s in L o n d o n , Die Zeich- nung in Florenz. Drawing in Florence 1500-1650, L o n d o n , 1991, n o . 8; the s e c o n d n o w i n t h e Ferretti C o l l e c t i o n ) ; the sketch f o r the tapestry o f Joseph Interpreting Pharaoh's Dream of the Fat and Lean Cattle (Fig. 20) ( L o n d o n , S o t h e b y ' s , 15 J u n e 1983, lot n o . 5); the s t u d y f o r the d e c o r a t i o n u n d e r the w i n d o w d i v i d i n g the Visitation f r o m the Birth of the Baptist i n the O r a t o r y o f S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t e (Paris,
Figure 24 F R A N C E S C O S A L V I A T I .
A n O f f e r i n g t o a R u l e r .
Hamburg, Art Market. Photo: Thomas Le Claire.
N o u v e a u D r o u o t , 23 M a y 1986, l o t n o . 200, as L a t t a n z i o G a m b a r a ) ; a n d the s t u d y f o r Time Grasping Opportunity i n the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r o f the P a l a z z o V e c c h i o , F l o r e n c e ( C o l n a g h i e x h i b i t i o n , L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k , 1991). S a l - viati's practice o f f r e q u e n t l y r e u s i n g t h e s a m e m o d e l i n different c o n t e x t s a l w a y s leaves a m a r g i n o f u n c e r t a i n t y as t o the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g s , t h u s h a m - p e r i n g a precise c h r o n o l o g y o f his w o r k as a d r a u g h t s m a n . 19. A l e s s a n d r o N o v a , ' " O c c a s i o Pars V i r t u t i s . ' C o n s i d e r a -
z i o n i sugli affreschi d i F r a n c e s c o Salviati per il cardinale R i c c i , " Paragone, 365, 1980, p p . 2 9 - 6 3 , 9 4 - 9 6 .
20. M i c h a e l H i r s t , " S a l v i a t i ' s c h i n o i s e r i e i n P a l a z z o S a c c h e t t i , "
Burlington Magazine, C X X I , 1979, p p . 7 9 1 - 9 2 .
21. F o r a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e Sacrifice of Isaac, see S y d n e y J . F r e e d b e r g , Andrea del Sarto, C a m b r i d g e , M A , 1963, fig.
190, o r J o h n S h e a r m a n , Andrea del Sarto, O x f o r d , 1965, pi. 170. T h e s a m e figure reappears i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e P r a d o v e r s i o n . T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m S a r t o w a s k i n d l y p o i n t e d o u t b y M i c h a e l H i r s t .
22. P o u n c e y ' s d r a w i n g is r e p r o d u c e d i n E t t o r e A l l e g r i a n d A l e s s a n d r o C e c c h i , Palazzo Vecchio e i Medici, F l o r e n c e , 1 9 8 0 , p. 4 6 .
23. Young Man Holding a Key, Florence, U f f i z i , G a b i n e t t o
D i s e g n i e S t a m p e , I n v. n o . 1077S (Santarelli C o l l . , C a r t e l l a X V I I ) . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k , b r o w n w a s h , h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e , o n g r e e n paper; 410 x 265 m m . A l t h o u g h C h e n e y
[ 106 ]
w r o t e o n t h e m o u n t that this is a c o p y , t h e s a m e a u t h o r p u b l i s h e d it i n her dissertation as a p r e p a r a t o r y s t u d y f o r t h e figure i n t h e Triumph of Camillus ( C h e n e y , 1963, p.
519), a d d i n g i n the t e x t that this is a d r a w i n g " o f great fluency a n d e l e g a n c e " (p. 174). B u s s m a n n (1969, p. 134, n . 59) d o e s n o t t h i n k that t h e modello is b y Salviati, b u t she a d d s that a n a b s o l u t e j u d g m e n t is d i f f i c u l t because o f the p o o r c o n d i t i o n o f the sheet. T h e c y c l e i n the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r o f C o s i m o d e ' M e d i c i w a s w i d e l y c o p i e d , b u t this d r a w i n g certainly o r i g i n a t e d in Salviati's w o r k s h o p . 24. C h e n e y , 1963, p p . 273, 519.
25. T h e sheet has b e e n p u b l i s h e d b y t h e present w r i t e r i n Renaissance Drawings from the Ambrosiana, e x h . cat. ed. b y R . R . C o l e m a n , N o t r e D a m e / W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , 1984, n o . 53, repr.
26. G i o v a n n i Battista A r m e n i n i , De' veri precetti delta pittura, R a v e n n a , 1587, p . 225; f o r a n E n g l i s h translation o f this passage, see E d w a r d J . O l s z e w s k i , On the True Precepts of the Art of Painting, n. p . , 1977, p. 293. O n e o f the t w o F r e n c h artists w a s a certain " P o n t i o , " w h o m u s t s u r e l y b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e M a i t r e P o n c e active i n t h e P a l a z z o R i c c i - Sacchetti w h i l e Salviati w a s p a i n t i n g t h e frescos i n the A u d i e n c e C h a m b e r : see E d i t h H e w e t t , " D e u x artistes francais d u X V I e siecle a R o m e . L a d e c o r a t i o n d u Palais Sacchetti p a r m a i t r e P o n c e et M a r c le F r a n c a i s , " Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 70, 1928, p p . 2 1 3 - 2 7 .
27. A r m e n i n i , 1587, p p . 9 7 - 9 8 . B e r n a r d i n o C a m p i ' s Parere sopra la Pittura w a s p u b l i s h e d i n C r e m o n a i n 1584 as an a p p e n d i x t o A l e s s a n d r o L a m o ' s Discorso intorno la scoltura, e pittura. T h i s rare b o o k w a s r e p r i n t e d b y G i a m b a t t i s t a Z a i s t a n d a d d e d as a t h i r d v o l u m e t o his Notizie istoriche, C r e m o n a , 1774: f o r t h e p a s s a g e o n h o w t o p l a n a c o m p o - s i t i o n u s i n g t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l s , see p. 103. Interest- i n g l y , after fleeing R o m e i n 1556 f o r fear o f a n e w sack o f t h e city, A r m e n i n i e n d e d u p i n M i l a n w h e r e h e h e l p e d C a m p i t o p a i n t an Assumption of the Virgin, a n d w h e r e h e w a s the latter's guest f o r a f e w m o n t h s ( A r m e n i n i , 1587, p . 2 2 1 ) .
28. Vasari, eds. B e t t a r i n i / B a r o c c h i , 1966, v o l . 1, p. 120.
29. C a m p i , 1584, p . 103. Interestingly, Salviati a n d C a m p i k n e w each o t h e r , as s h o w n b y a letter w r i t t e n b y the f o r m e r a n d p u b l i s h e d i n L a m o ' s Discorso (1774, p. 49). T h e d o c u - m e n t d o e s n o t c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n relevant t o Salviati's w o r k s , b u t s i n c e this is the o n l y s u r v i v i n g letter w r i t t e n b y t h e artist a n d is u n k n o w n t o Salviati scholars it is w o r t h t r a n s c r i b i n g i n full:
M . B e r n a r d i n o m i o M a g . Se dalle o p e r e , che v e g g i a m o q u i c o n m a r a v i g l i a d i c i a s c u n o , d i m a n o della bella P i t - trice C r e m o n e s e [ S o f o n i s b a A n g u i s s o l a ] vostra fattura, si p u o far c o n g i e t t u r a del b e l l ' intelletto v o s t r o , che li sete stato M a e s t r o , t a n t o p i u p o i dal n o r a e che v ' a c q u i s -
tate c o n le p i t t u r e v o s t r e di M i l a n o , che fin di q u i si sente, d o b b i a m o c o n f e r m a r c i nell' a n i m o che, nella g i o v e n t u v o s t r a e s s e n d o tale, avete c o l v a l o r v o s t r o s o p r a o g n i altro da illustrar la vostra ritta nei t e m p i a venire. N o n e d u n q u e m a r a v i g l i a se a v e n d o i o per m i e i n e g o z i da venire i n b r e v e i n coteste parti, v i m a n d o i n questa carta u n p o c o d i s c h i z z o dell' a f f e z i o n e m i a v e r s o di v o i , s a l u t a n d o v i , e ricordandovi c h e i o v ' a m o p i u per il v o s t r o l e g g i a d r o intelletto e per la f a m a v o s t r a che p e r c h e i o v i c o n o s c a , c o m e s p e r o e d e s i d e r o d i fare, c o n la presenza. C o m a n d a t e m i da fratello, fra tanto, c h e i o m i o f f e r o in q u a n t ' i o p o s s o , e m i vi r a c c o m a n d o . D i R o m a 28. A p r i l e 1554.
A l i i piaceri vostri
Francesco S a l v i a t o P i t t o r e
30. F o r q u o t a t i o n s o f M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s Night a n d Dawn in the altarpiece in S. M a r i a dell' A n i m a a n d in the G r i m a n i Palace fresco cycle respectively, see A l e s s a n d r o N o v a ,
" F r a n c e s c o Salviati a n d the ' M a r k g r a f e n ' C h a p e l in S.
M a r i a dell' A n i m a , " Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Insti- tutes in Florenz, X X V , 1981, p. 363, a n d M i c h a e l H i r s t ,
" T h r e e C e i l i n g D e c o r a t i o n s b y Francesco S a l v i a t i , "
Zeitschriftfiir Kunstgeschichte, 26, 1963, p. 156.
31. N e w Y o r k , C o o p e r - H e w i t t M u s e u m , Inv. n o . 1 9 0 1 - 3 9 - 1365 (ex-Piancastelli C o l l e c t i o n ) . Pen a n d b r o w n i n k , b r o w n w a s h , h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e ; 206 x 260 m m . 32. F o r P o u n c e y ' s o p i n i o n , see C h e n e y (1963, p. 530). N o t -
w i t h s t a n d i n g the v a l u a b l e m o n o g r a p h s b y Keller (1976) a n d W e i s z (1984), the entire q u e s t i o n o f the O r a t o r y o f S.
G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t e needs t o b e r e e x a m i n e d . T h e fresco o f the Baptism of Christ w a s e x e c u t e d b y J a c o p i n o del C o n t e in 1541, b u t I b e l i e v e that his p a i n t i n g is based o n Salviati's designs. J a c o p i n o w a s an artist o f l i m i t e d p o w e r s , as s h o w n b y his o t h e r w o r k s in the s a m e O r a t o r y : his Preaching of the Baptist w a s based o n a d r a w i n g b y P e r i n o del V a g a , n o w in V i e n n a , a n d e v e n his a c k n o w l e d g e d masterpiece, the Deposition o v e r the altar, w a s p r o b a b l y inspired b y a p r e v i - o u s p r o j e c t o f D a n i e l e da V o l t e r r a , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y J e a n S. W e i s z , " D a n i e l e da V o l t e r r a a n d t h e O r a t o r y o f S. G i o v a n n i D e c o l l a t o , " Burlington Magazine, C X X I I I , 1981, p p . 355-56. T h i s is n o t the place t o discuss Salviati's p i v o t a l role, b u t it s h o u l d be n o t e d that the f i g u r e o f St.
J o h n i n Battista Franco's Arrest of the Baptist f o r m s part o f the Salviati repertoire; f o r e x a m p l e , it appears i n reverse in the left f o r e g r o u n d o f the Triumph of Camillus in the P a l a z z o V e c c h i o . M o r e o v e r , w h e n Salviati w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d t o c o m p l e t e the c y c l e in the early 1550s, the painter a n d his assistants i n t e r v e n e d o n all f o u r w a l l s s o as t o u n i f y a n d leave his m a r k o n the entire enterprise. I n d e e d , besides the frescoes o n the altar, east, a n d w e s t w a l l s , it has n o t p r e v i - o u s l y been n o t i c e d that Salviati also d e s i g n e d the h i g h l y i m a g i n a t i v e d e c o r a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g the statue o f the B a p - tist o n the n o r t h (entrance) w a l l .
