Annual Report
of the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
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Research for People and the Environment
The Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL performs research with a focus on
"the use, management and protection of landscapes" and "the management of natural hazards". It provides help in making decisions about sustainable landscape use and solving related pro- blems. WSL is working towards a land- scape with a better quality of life and towards providing people with protec- tion against natural hazards. Its research centres on mountainous regions and periurban areas.
WSL employs around 400 people in Birmensdorf, Davos, Bellinzona, Lau- sanne and Sion. It is a federal research centre affiliated to the Board of the Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology.
Impressum
Responsibility for this edit1011:
PD Dr. Mano F. Broggi, Director WSL Idea: WSL, Wild & Frey (Ziinch) Ed1t111g: Da111el Schnyder, WSL Translat10n: Dr. Silvia Dmgwa/1, Nussba11me11
Design and production:
Pub/1cat10ns WSL
Portraits "Faces behind the research": Andre Roth, WSL: pages 4, 6, 12, 18, 24;
Manfred H. Demi, Munchen: page 14;
Pascal Wuest, Zurich: page 34;
made available: pages 2, 28.
Photo ack11owledgeme11ts:
WSL: pages 3, 5, 7a, 7b, 10, 11, 15, 17, 21, 25, 25;
Peter Jaegg1, Giinsberg: page 7c;
Paul Antener: page 8;
Jean-Bruno Wettstem, Samte-Croix:
page 13;
Pascal Wuest, Ziinch: pages 19, 26;
Docuphot, Ziinch: page 20;
H. Glader, WWF Switzerland: page 22.
C1tat1on:
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL (ed) 2000: The Year 1999. Annual Report of the Swiss Federal Research Inst1t11te WSL.
36 pp.
Available from:
Bibliothek WSL Zurcherstrasse 111 CH-8903 Birmensdorf Fax 01 739 22 15 E-mail: bibliothek@wsl.ch
Contents
Welcome
In brief
Together and not alone No increase in growth A guest at WSL
Controlling chestnut blight with viruses Fast and powerful
An ear for bats
In forns
From dormitory town to lively village
Does the forest provide protection against landslides?
Forest and pasture in one Solving the problems together Avalanche protection has paid off Too much of a good thing Sustainable use of the landscape
Why (or why not) are large carnivores welcome?
A new method for tracing the origins of Norway spruce and oak Is mire conservation effective?
I-acts and figures
Governing Board and Commissions Organisational structure
Finances and personnel
Faces behind the Research Outlook
Research is carried out by people. 400 More about WSL women and men work for WSL. Once
again in this Annual Report, nine of them introduce themselves - shown here in their free-time performing vol- untary work. They are representative of all those who put their time and skills to the use of the general public in poli- tics, social services, the church, culture, nature conservation, sport and the like.
They represent all those who do not put themselves first - and who, for that rea- son, also benefit personally.
3
5 5 5 7 7 7
8 10 13 15 16 19 20 22 25 26
29 30 32
35 36
A111111al Report WSL 1999 1
Welcome to WSL
Mario F. Broggi, Director
Switzerland's experiences with the avalanche winter of February 1999 and the storm "Lothar" on 26 December 1999 serve to illustrate the importance of WSL's role as a federal research insti- tute. WSL does research on topics rele- vant to society, provides expert support when special events occur, analyses them and formulates the necessary course of action. It tries to find answers to open re- search questions. Thus it can provide politicians, local and federal authorities, and practitioners with guidelines for making particular decisions and with help in finding solutions.
The Symposium we organised in January 1999 shows how highly we rate the practical implementation of our research findings. Entitled "A Swiss Extension Service for the Sustainable Use of the Landscape - Breaching the Gap between Research and Practice", it was attended by representatives from more than 100 different organisations.
WSL aims to play an active role in breaching this gap, building on first- rate research.
Landmarks were set in 1999 to en- sure we would also in future deal with the right research questions in a sound and efficient manner. We have begun to give our research a new direction in ac- cordance with WSL's Mission Statement
of April 1998. On 1 January 1999 our new internal organisational structure came into force. The first of WSL's new large research programmes have started.
We have held two "Forums for Know- ledge" on our two main research areas
"Peri-Urban Areas" and "Mountain Re- gions". These have provided important ideas for research. We are in the process of giving more priority to marketing, extension services and communication.
Moreover we have, for the first time, drawn up a "performance agreement"
with the ETH Board, our governing body. This sets out the aims we want to achieve in the year 2000. In return, we receive the necessary funds in the form of a global budget.
This has meant many changes taking place at the same time - a challenge for all of us. I would like to thank all the WSL employees for their outstanding professional work and for their readi- ness to help in dealing with these changes. I should also like to thank our customers and partners for their valuable cooperation.
A111111al Report WSL 1999 3
In brief
Together and not alone
When WSL extended the upper section of a building in Birmensdorf in 1999, it seized the opportunity to transform part of the former attic into a modern and light, open-plan office. It was the first of its kind at WSL. Up until then, individu- al small offices had been the rule. The new office is intended to encourage cooperative work. So far, experiences with it have been very positive. Those working in this open-plan office today would not want to swap it for a private office.
No increase in growth
A large proportion of Swiss forests receive more nitrogen than is actually needed for their trees to grow (see also page 19). Scientists assume that this nitrogen deposition encourages growth.
A WSL experiment has shown, however, that this need not, at least in the short term, be the case. A forest plot in Alptal was artificially treated with nitrogen. In 1999, after the experiment had been running for four years, no effect on the trees could be detected. The growth of both their diameters and heights
A guest at WSL
Normally he is an Assistant Professor at a Japanese university. In 1999, how- ever, Nobuya Mizoue worked at WSL in Birmensdorf as a visiting scientist.
During this time he tested a computer programme that he had written and developed it further. With this pro- gramme the extent of defoliation can be measured automatically. Nobuya Mizoue is one of the many visiting scientists who spend time working at WSL. These visits are valuable for both parties as they encourage scientific proceeded in the same way as did that of exchange, personal contacts and new the untreated trees. The most likely experiences.
A11 attic of a special kmd: Here people ca11 co11111111111cate spo11ta11eo11sly be- twee11 the1r workplaces.
explanation is that the growth of the trees was limited by the impermeable heavy soil and phosphorous deficiency.
Contact:
Dr. Patrick Schleppi
Section "Forest and Environmental Protection", Birmensdorf
Tel. 01-739 24 22
E-mail: patrick.schleppi@wsl.ch
The sprmkler 1s spraymg a111111011111111 mtrate 011 the trees. Tins s111111/ates J11troge11 depos1t1011 that 1s three t1111es greater tha11 the 11s11al atmos- pheric 111/mt 111 Al/1tal.
Nolmya !vk:oue 1s takmg a photo of a tree crow11. 011 the basis of the result- mg d1g1tal /J/wtos, the computer ca11 calculate the exte11t of crow11 tlmmmg.
A111111al Report W'SL 1999 5
In brief
Controlling chestnut blight with viruses
A fungus introduced from Asia known scientifically as Cryphonectria parasitica causes a dangerous bark disease in Eur- opean sweet chestnuts. Fortunately there are viruses that can infect the fungus and render it harmless. The spread of the viruses through some regions in Europe has led to a natural repression of the blight epidemic there.
WSL studied these viruses as part of a European research programme (COST G4). It appears that there are various types of viruses, but one type has been especially successful in spreading in Europe. This type will now be used to biologically control the chestnut disease in Europe.
Contact:
Dr. Daniel Rigling Tel. 01-739 24 15
E-mail: daniel.rigling@wsl.ch Dr. Ursula Heiniger
Tel. 01-739 22 70
E-mail: ursula.heiniger@wsl.ch (Both in Section "Forest and Environ- mental Protection", Birmensdorf)
The vims type ca11 be 1de11t1f1ed 11s111g mole cular /nolog1cal methods.
Fast and powerful
The effects of the quantities of snow that fell during the winter of 1998/99 were not all negative. The Swiss Federal Insti- tute for Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) was able to trigger three large avalanches artificially at its research station in the Vallee de la Sionne, Canton Valais. The researchers collected huge quantities of data on the dynamics of avalanches. Among other things they found out that avalanches reach higher speeds and crash into obstacles with more pressure than was previously thought. With the largest avalanche, speeds up to 300 kilometres per hour and pressures up to 100 tonnes per square metre were recorded. These are valuable new findings which will be used to improve protection measures and the accuracy of avalanche hazard maps.
Contact:
Franc;ois Dufour
SLF Branch Station, Sion, Valais Tel. 027-324 03 89
E-mail: dufour@slf.ch
Here comes the avala11che! The forces were so great that some of the obstacles placed 111
the avala11che path were destroyed.
An ear for bats
Many species of bats can be distin- guished by their orientation calls. At WSL the first system for their automated acoustic identification has recently been developed. Within seconds it can iden- tify the vocalizing species. The electronic methods used up to now have been time- consuming and not automatic. More- over, they can only identify certain species. The new system will be useful for both science and nature conservat- ion since it is an ideal tool for deter- mining easily which bats live where in a standardised way. This information can be used as a basis for deciding on appropriate protection measures.
Contact:
Dr. Martin K. Obrist
Section "Biodiversity", Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 24 66
E-mail: martin.obrist@wsl.ch Dr. Ruedi Boesch
Section "Landscape Inventories"
Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 24 98
E-mail: ruedi.boesch@wsl.ch
The 11/traso1111d micro- pho11e ca/1t11res t/1e 01 ie11- tat1011 calls of the bat. A specially deucloped cum- puter programme com- pares these so1111ds with d1g1ta/ly recorded voice pattems.
Amwal Report WSL 1999 7
From dormitory town to lively village
• - -
IHow inhahitants ca,1 participate in shaping their everyday surroundings Villages do not have to
be dormitory towns. If
inhabitants are able to A village somewhere in Switzerland: the participate in their viii- local associations could all do with new age's development, they members. An ever-smaller number of in-
often, as a result, want habitants take part in village events.
to become more lnvolv- Moreover, it is always the same ones ed. This may increase who tend to be active. Long-established their sense of identifica- residents and newcomers view each tion with their everyday other sceptically. Most inhabitants no surroundings, strength- longer identify with their surroundings en their feelings of joint and the landscape in which they live, so responsibility and they do not feel responsible for them.
ultimately lead to an The village has become a dormitory improvement In their town.
quality of life.
Reasons for the villagers' withdrawal Such a description could apply to many villages. Why are people turning away from public life and withdrawing into the private sphere? There ~ccm to be two reasons for this phenomenon:
The obvious reason is the increasing individualisation of society today. Vill- age inhabitants are no longer prepared to adapt to a traditional village life-style with its mutual control system. They find this too restrictive. And further- more, such village institutions as clubs and political parties do not provide them with enough scope to meet their needs and try out their own ideas.
The second reason is less obvious:
Village inhabitants lack the opportunity to participate in shaping their living
today. More often than not, a second way of participating in planning is not used. According to town planning law, the local population can have a say in planning through participation-in- planning processes. But usually the plans have already been drafted, and after that it is just a question of voicing possible objections. But who wants to tell the experts what to do? There are no provisions for genuine discussion and participation in development right from the start. That means there is no real motivation to become personally invol- ved. And yet a third point is that both political decisions and town planning measures are normally implemented by the political authorities, by the admini- strative offices or by firms employed for this purpose. The local population is not involved in any implementation. The upshot of all this is that, although the locals may participate in politics and planning to some extent, they cannot feed in their ideas creatively. This is like- ly to contribute to their rejection of public life and withdrawal into privacy.
Participation works wonders
What is to be done? Experience with various local communities has shown that if the locals arc given the chance to participate in planning the development
l-11t11rc: \Y/orkslw/1 111 Hmdelbank, Bern. The ideas collected 111 Phase 2 are /1rese11ted in Phase 3. The workshop attracted 111any in- habitants and was au important 111ile-stone
111 tlH· partic1patio11 i11-develop111e11t process
space or the environment in which they of the village, then many do make use live or in influencing the village struct- of this opportunity with astonishing ures. Thus they miss out on having the results. Such a participation-in-develop- chances such participation provides to ment process can truly work wonders identify with their everyday surroun- for a village. Participation-in-develop- dings. This may, at first glance, seem ment can:
surprising as Switzerland is, after all, a - lead to new ideas and suggestions, place where individuals can really - encourage further discussion, mutual participate in politics at the local understanding and cooperation, i11 H111delba11k.
8 A}l}mal Report WSL / 999
government level. But this is all done - reinforce the integration of the inha- through rather formal channels that are
simply inappropriate for many people
bitants in the village community,
a11011y111011s village
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A dor111itory town is transfor111ed 11110 a lively village. Tile part1c1pat1011-111-develop111e11t pro- cess bas 111ade it possible. (lll11strat1011s: Cesa Gerber)
- increase their identification with their everyday surroundings and landscape and their motivation to be actively involved,
- foster a feeling of joint respons- ibility,
- and lead to a better quality of life.
The process involves the following five phases:
1. Creating a broad base
The aim of this phase is for the repre- sentatives of all the important groups to form a work group, called a Village Fo- rum or a District Forum. This forum de- In 1999 WSL developed a guide de- signs and directs the participation-in-de- signed to help local communities start up
and carry out participation-in-develop- ment. The guide was based on WSL re- search work and on experience gained by local communities and institutions in recent years in Switzerland, Germany and Austria. The proposals apply not only to villages, but also to districts in cities.
Two prerequisites are important:
1. The local population should choose the topics and aims themselves. The pro- cess should not, therefore, be too strong- ly directed from outside or from above.
2. All the participants must have the courage to agree to go along with an open-ended process where the results are not known in advance.
velopment process.
2. Taking a critical look at local ideas a11d wishes
The purpose of this phase is to bring out into the open the ideas and wishes of as many local inhabitants as possible. They should be encouraged to say what they 1magme a "lifeworthy" village could look like.
3. Exchanging ideas in public
The various ideas collected during the 2nd phase are now introduced to the public and jointly developed further. In order to reach as many participants as possible, a form should be chosen that is not too intimidating, for example, an ex- hibition or future workshop.
4. Moving from ideas to concrete pro- jects
In this phase the selected ideas are realised. Work groups implement the individual projects in cooperation with the local inhabitants.
5. Anchoring participation-in-develop- ment in the local co1111111111ity
Once the ideas are implemented, the first round of the participation-in-develop- ment process comes to an end. The aim of the 5th phase is then to make use of the impetus it creates and to ensure that the exchange of ideas becomes an esta- blished part of village life.
Contact:
Dr. Matthias Buchecker
Section "Landscape and Society"
Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 23 60
E-mail: matthias. buchecker@wsl.ch
Brochure and Web-packet
The guide "Lively Village / Lively Dis- trict" (in German) is available in the form of a brochure costing CHF 12.- from
Bibliothek WSL Ziircherstrasse 111 8903 Birmensdorf Telephone 01-739 22 07 Fax 01-739 22 15 E-mail: bibliothek@wsl.ch lnternet: http://www.wsl.ch
You will find a Web-packet under http:// www.wsl.ch/land/prod ucts/leben- diges_dorf/ that supplements the infor- mation provided in the brochure. Nu- merous case studies, method descrip- tions and useful addresses supplement the description of the individual stages in the process.
A111111al Report \VSL 1999 9
Does the forest provide protection against landslides?
/11vestigati11g the th1111derstor111 damage at Sachse/11 Little is known about
the relationships be-
tween landslides and The inhabitants of Sachseln in Canton the forest. In 1998 and Obwalden are not likely to forget the 1999 WSL carried out evening of 15 August 1997 quickly. Rain extensive research in from a thunderstorm beat down for a Sachseln. solid two hours. Above the village more than 400 landslides took place. Masses of soil material flowed down the swollen torrents. Water, mud, stones and tree trunks devastated the village. The cost of the damage was around 100 million Swiss francs.
Nearly 300 landslides investigated How can we reduce the danger of shal- low landslides like these occurring?
What influence does the vegetation, the sort of cultivation, the soil properties and topography have on the stability of a slope when it raim ~o hard? In parti- cular, how docs the prc~ence of forest af- fect stability? These are difficult questi-
WSI. scie11tists assess 2S0 la11dslules 011 t/Je slopes a/}()11e Sachsc/11. T/Jey recorded,
,1111011g ot/Jer th111gs, t/Je la11dfom1 of the s/of,e, t/Je state of the 1•egetat1011, the si;;c
of the la11ds!tde area a11d t/Je /n operties of t/Je sod.
10 A111111al Report WSI / 'J'J'J
ons which science up to now has only partially been able to answer. The extra- ordinarily large number of landslides in Sachseln have provided an opportunity to investigate these questions more carefully. WSL started, therefore, a re- search project in which various disci- plines are involved and which is, in terms of scope, the first of its kind. In the sum- mers of I 998 and 1999 scientists asses- sed, according to the same criteria, 280 landslides in the catchment areas of four torrent~. Aerial photos and geographical information systems were used for addi- tional evaluations. Initial results were available by the end of 1999.
The results showed that, whether a landslide occured, depended mostly on the slope inclination, the altitude, the properties of the soil and, above all, the vegetation, whereas the aspect and the landform of the slope had no, or only a slight influence.
What role did the forest play in the occurrence of the landslides? In areas that were not so steep, there was consi- derably less landslide activity in forested parts than in sections of open country.
However, on steep slopes, i.e. where the inclination was more than 39 degrees, no difference wa~ found between forest- ed and open areas.
It depends on the condition
No two forests are alike. In forests that have few gaps and a variable structure with many trees species appropriate to the location, there are few landslides.
Considerably more landslides occurred in forests that were in worse condition, for instance, in those that were full of gaps. A large number of landslides took place in forests that had been severely damaged by storms or bark beetles.
La11dslrdes a11d t/Jeir traces. TIHs 1s what the Alp B1tzltsc/Hva11d 11ear Sac/Jse/,1 looked like after the tlH111derstor111.
Forests cannot, therefore, always stop landslides, especially when precipi- tation as heavy as that in Sachseln occurs. If a forest is in good condition, however, it reduces the number of land- slides significantly. From the point of view of silviculture the aim must be to have a permanently stable forest with deep-rooted tree species that are suited to the area.
This investigation is not yet fin- ished. Further results, for example, about the conditions in open country, will follow.
WSL is carrying out this research in close collaboration with the Cantonal forestry service and the authorities in Sachseln. The University of Bern, the Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich and the University of Erlangen- Ni.irnberg have also participated in the scientific work. The project was financ- ed 50% by WSL. The Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), Canton Obwalden and the Sachseln Community and Corporation together provided the other half.
Contact:
Christian Rickli
Section "Water, Soil and Rock Movements", Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 24 03
E-mail: christian.rickli@wsl.ch
A111111al Re/JOrt WSL 1999 11
Forest and pasture in one
How can we cultivate the forest pastures of the Jura chain so that they can be preserved In the long run? In 1999 WSL's Antenne romande
prepared a research project designed to provide answers to this question.
A forest pasture 111 the Jura 111 Ca11- to11 Vaud. Cows today ma11,ly graze
011 111st tlJe ncb and eas,ly access,ble pastures. Tins disturbs the eq111/i- bn11111 between forest and pasture.
Conserving the wlt11ral landsca/Je ty/Jical of the Jura
Forest pastures shape the higher strata of the Swiss Jura. Here, unlike almost any other central European landscape, nat- ure and culture are entwined. This inter- mingling has a positive effect: forest pastures provide habitats for many kinds of plants and animals. People from urban agglomerations use the attractive landscape in their free time - for hiking, picnicking and cycling. The pastures continue to play an important economic role in these rural regions as suppliers of milk, meat and timber. And these past- ures also have a very important function as reservoirs for drinking water.
Equilibrium endangered
For centuries the work of farmers has maintained the balance between forest and pastures. Today this equilibrium is being put at risk. This has partly to do with the economic difficulties experi- enced by the agricultural sector and the changes in grazing associated with them.
The highly bred cattle that are wide- spread today prefer to graze on rich and easily accessible pastures. This means those pastures with poorer grazing are no longer exploited. Moreover, there are considerably fewer young cattle than in the past, that is, fewer animals graze on the less accessible pastures, among shrubs and young trees.
Although all forest pastures are free-
term basis? To what degree may we ex- ploit the forest pasture or let it become rewooded without it losing the character of a forest pasture? What is the mini- mum kind of human care required?
Scientific groundwork
In 1999 WSL's Antenne romande in Lau- sanne designed a research programme for investigating these questions. In collaboration with cantons and with re- search partners, its aims are to provide:
- A scientific basis for a form of culti- vation that allows a dynamic bal- ance between the forest and pasture.
- Tools for developing the forest pa- stures sustainably, i.e. in a way that brings the interests of agriculture, forestry, tourism and nature conser- vation together under one umbrella.
- Detailed knowledge about eco- systems, that is the symbiotic com- munities of animals and plants, and about how they develop.
The proposed research project has been named "From Doubs to Danube" since not only are there forest pastures in the Swiss Jura but also in Switzerland's neighbouring countries. They are to be found in a region extending from the French Jura to the Vosges Mountains and far beyond the Black Forest. For this reason the Antenne romande hopes to be able to collaborate closely with French ly accessible, tourists behave in a similar and German research partners.
fashion: as a rule they too tend always
to return to the same spots. Therefore, a Contact:
large number of tracts of pasture are Jean Combe
continually overexploited while others Antenne romande, Lausanne are becoming increasingly neglected. As Tel. 021-693 39 02
a result, we have dense forest on the one E-mail: jean.combe@epfl.ch hand, and pure grassland on the other.
Here, experts speak of demixing.
The following questions arise: how can we cultivate the forest pastures so as to sustain them on a medium and long-
A1111ual RefJOrt WSL 1999 13
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Solving the problems together
Under the leadership of a WSL employee, the forest enterprises of Bremgarten, Wahlen and Waltenschwil have been merged. Taking stock two years later the result is pleasing.
The forest e11terpnse Bre111garte11- Wohle11 Walte11schw,I employs spe- cialised (m11s (or 11111cl1 of its work.
A 11at11re co11servat1011 area 11ear \Vo/Jlen.
During a11d after t!Je First World Wat;
"Tor(moos" was dra111ed and its peat removed. Smee 199 5 1t has been re(looded agam.
Merging forest enterprises
Many of Switzerland's forest operation- al units have been in the red for years.
Those of Bremgarten, Wohlen and Wal- tenschwil took appropriate measures and, as of January 1, 1997, joined forces to form a single enterprise covering 676 hectares of forest in which the cultiva- tion and the costs are shared. These three communities in Canton Aargau were among the first to take this step.
The merger was greatly helped by Anton Biirgi, a forest engineer at WSL and also, because of a contract between the citizens of the town of Bremgarten and WSL, Bremgarten's head forester since 1993. This collaboration is almost 30 years old and has been profitable for both parties: Bremgarten has an expert to manage its forest operations and WSL gains practical experience which can then be fed into research in one of its core areas.
The advantages of this collabora- tion bore fruit once again when, at the beginning of the 90's, the financial state of Bremgarten's forest operational unit deteriorated. Anton Biirgi, together with the foresters of Bremgarten and Wohlen and the members of the three forestry commissions, planned how to carry out the merger.
Profits instead of losses
In 1999, a good two years after the mer- ger, it was possible to see some positive interim results:
- The costs of planting, tending young forests and felling have been reduc- ed.
- Administrative costs have also been significantly reduced.
The employment of specialised har- vesting firms has more than doubled.
- Before the merger, two of the three operational units were incurring losses, while the balance sheet of the third was still positive. The newly merged forest enterprise, on the other hand, is firmly in the black.
This example has attracted attention.
From all over Switzerland forest opera- tional units have taken an interest in the Bremgarten model and have sought in- formation on the merger and its effects.
New research programme
Creating larger units is just one possible way for Swiss forest enterprises to try to cope with the difficulties they are experiencing. Additional measures should be taken to improve the operat- ing procedures, the flow of material and information along the entire production chain of wood as well as the marketing of timber, which is a domestic natural resource that is ecologically valuable and renewable. In coming years, WSL is planning to conduct intensified research and development together with other partners. A research programme entitled
"Management of a future-oriented forest utilisation" will start in the year 2000.
Contact:
Dr. Anton Biirgi
Section "Forest Resources and Management", Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 22 41
E-mail: anton.buergi@wsl.ch
A111111al Report WSL 1999 15
Avalanche protection has paid off
The avalanche winter of 1999 meant a great deal of work for the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research and the canto-
nal and local authori~
ies. But it also provided them with important confirmation of the value, even In such an emergency situation, of the avalanche warning system, CH-2000, and of integrated avalanche protection.
But 1111prove111e11ts are still necessary
February 1999 will go down in history in Switzerland (and her neighbouring Alpine countries) for its record quanti- ties of snow, the around 1200 harmful avalanches, 17 deaths, cut-off valleys, blocked transport routes, direct damage amounting to around 440 million Swiss francs, and indirect damage costing an estimated 180 million francs. Three in- tensive periods of precipitation accom- panied by stormy north-west winds brought massive snow-falls to the Alps between 27 January and 25 February.
With the huge quantities of precipitation and extensive accumulations of wind- driven snow, the avalanche danger in-
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creased from one period to the next. In its national bulletin on 9 February, SLF spoke for the first time about very serious avalanche danger. Between 21 and 25 February this level of danger applied to virtually the whole of the northern side of the Alps, to Valais and to part of the Grisons. The peak of avalanche activity was reached on 22 February. On this day alone over 200 avalanches were observed.
Peak activity at SLF
The state of emergency on the mountain slopes meant working to full capacity at SLF in Davos. The staff worked around the clock drawing up avalanche bulle- tins, advising avalanche services and those in charge in the cantons and local communities, inspecting avalanches that had come down, giving innumerable press, radio and television interviews and answering thousands of questions on the phone.
Although these were hectic days, experts at SLF, in cooperation with the communities and cantons affected, soon began to evaluate the avalanche occur- rences. Doing the groundwork for this meant visiting sites and taking measure- ments there, collecting aerial photos and obtaining information from the local experts. Within a short space of time SLF produced an interim report, which had been commissioned by the federal government, on the avalanche winter.
This was presented to the public in July 1999. In February 2000 the basic scien- tific documentation of the avalanche winter of 1999 appeared.
Successful coordination
On the basis of these evaluations, ex- perts at SLF have drawn the following conclusions:
The holistic or integral form of ava- lanche protection practised for decades has proved its worth. Integral avalanche protection means that protection mea- sures involving forestry operations, planning, technical and organisational measures are coordinated and consi- stently applied. This interplay of pro- tective constructions, danger zone (avalanche hazard) maps, protective forests, systems for early warning, warning and alerting, closing off and securing areas, evacuations, and artific- ially triggering avalanches worked well in February 1999. Thus considerably fewer people were hurt in the avalanche winter of 1999 than in the avalanche period in 1951 even though today many more tourists visit the Alps. The number of houses damaged was also smaller this time than in 1951. Of course, as always with such natural catastrophes, luck also played a role.
The experts believe that the level of protection offered to settlements today is generally high. What is not yet satis- factory is the protection of traffic routes.
This is mainly because it has not been possible to adjust the extent of pro- tection offered to the heavy increase in traffic volumes over the past few de- cades. The avalanche winter of 1999 showed very clearly how vulnerable today's mobile society is to extreme natural events.
I l \
A11ala11che support stmctures at Scln11eifi11e11, aboue Zermatt. photographed 011
25 relmtary, 1999. Tins photo shows quite i111pressi11ely the effect of such tech11ica/
f,rotectio11 measures.
Improvements possible
How can the avalanche risk be reduced?
Where can protection against avalan- ches be improved? Evaluating the avalanche winter showed that it is parti- cularly organisational measures that need improvement:
- With spatially and temporally more exact avalanche forecasts, the ava- lanche risk along transport routes, as well as in settlements, can be sub- stantially reduced.
- Avalanche warning with regional avalanche bulletins must be expand- ed further and extended to all Alpine regions. In Autumn 1999 SLF launched bulletins for two other regions, namely for the Upper and Lower Valais.
- The flow of information between avalanche services, management teams, civil engineering departments, the public, media and tourist organi- sations must be improved.
- Where there are gaps in the system, local and regional warning services must be set up and the members of these services must be trained and continually given further training.
- A new basis for making decisions about the artificial detonation of avalanches is required.
- Guidelines that take into account the natural hazard risks are needed for planning transport systems for tourists.
Live with the residual risks
However, even once the system of inte- grated avalanche protection has been improved, full protection against avalanches, as against other natural ha- zards, is not possible for technical, eco- nomic and ecological reasons. There will always be residual risks. Dealing with risks deliberately and systematically, so- called integral risk management, will in future come to play a still more import- ant role as demands for safety increase and resources become more limited. The avalanche winter of 1999 showed clear- ly where the strengths and weaknesses were in dealing with avalanche danger.
Now the lessons from this need to be learnt. In coming years SLF intends to build on these strengths in cooperation with the cantons and local communities, and eliminate the weak spots. Thus the experiences from the avalanche winter of 1999 can be put to good use and im- plemented for the well-being of society.
Contact:
Dr. Tom Russi
Section "Avalanche Warning and Risk Management", SLF Davos
Tel. 081-417 01 51
E-mail: russi@slf.ch, http://www.slf.ch
A111111al Report \VSL I 999 17
Too much of a good thing
Swiss forests are receiving too much nitrogen. This has been confirmed by measurements made by WSL at permanent re- search plots. High de- position levels are, in the long-run, a threat to the forests.
Recording 11itroge11 depos1f1011 011 a per111a11e11t research plot.
Nitrogen deposition in the forests
Emissions from road traffic and agricul- ture are overloading the air with nitro- gen. The nitrogen enters ecosystems such as forests in rain or snow or through de- position from gas or aerosols.
Fertiliser today, pollutant tomorrow From the mid fifties to the mid eighties nitrogen deposition loads increased dra- stically in Switzerland. A moderate in- crease can be favourable for plants as the nitrogen acts as a fertiliser and stimu- lates growth. Overly high levels of depo- sition can, however, endanger the forest in the long term. Possible consequences are: nutrient imbalances, soil acidifica- tion, a reduction in the stability of trees, greater sensitivity of trees to drought, al- terations in the composition of the vege- tation and increased nitrate levels in drinking water. Experts have set critical deposition loads above which such un- desirable effects are likely, in the long term, to occur.
ding on the site, the actual loads are, therefore, up to 12 kilograms per hect- are greater than the measured loads.
This means that the nitrogen deposition at all the sites studied lies at least within the critical range of 10 to 20 kilograms per hectare and year.
These excessively high levels of nitrogen deposition pose a long-term risk for the forests. WSL supports, therefore, demands for a reduction in nitrogen deposition loads.
The nitrogen measurements at the LWF sites are being continued and, since 1999, have also been carried out in forests in the Alps. At the moment WSL researchers are working on investigating relationships between the deposition loads measured, the chemical composit- ion of the water in the soil and the nutrient content of tree leaves and need- les.
Contact:
Dr. Anne Thimonier Rickenmann Overly high deposition levels Tel. 01-739 23 55
How much nitrogen enters Swiss forests E-mail: anne.thimonier@wsl.ch from the air? WSL is studying this Maria Schmitt
question within the framework of the Tel. 01-739 23 55 Long-term Forest Ecosystem Research
Project (LWF) in collaboration with the federal government and the cantons. At the beginning of 1999 initial results from seven permanent research plots showed
E-mail: maria.schmitt@wsl.ch Dr. Peter Brang
Tel. 01-739 24 86
E-mail: peter.brang@wsl.ch
(All Section "Forest Ecosystems and that: at most sites the nitrogen deposit- Ecological Risks", Birmensdorf) ion levels measured were in the region of
the critical loads. At the Novaggio site in the Tessin the level was even considerab- ly higher. It must be said, however, that the atmospheric input that a tree absorbs directly via its leaves or needles was not recorded in the measurements. Depen-
A111111al Report \VSL 1999 19
Sustainable use of the landscape
Forums for knowledge in Birmensdorf and Davos Is a sustainable use
of perl-urban areas
and mountain regions WSL identifies with the long-term goal possible? Valuable of ensuring sustainable use of the land-
ideas for research scape. To this end, we want to do re- were generated at two search in coming years that provides
WSL conferences. a better basis for decision-making, especially where peri-urban areas and mountain regions are concerned. Which are the most urgent questions? At two conferences under the name of "Forum for Knowledge", WSL brought together experts from science and practice in the spring and autumn of 1999.
20 A111111al Re/Jort WSL I 999
Peri-urban areas
At the Forum for Knowledge on peri-ur- ban areas at Birmensdorf on 3 March, the experts were in agreement that Swit- zerland is really a city. A large propor- tion of the Swiss population lives today in peri-urban areas. The development of these areas has often been uncoordinat- ed. The result has been a rash of settle- ments that, in the view of the speakers at the conference, is neither beautiful nor of ecological value, offering too little quality of life. And the spatial separat- ion of the functions of living, working and relaxation means that travelling di- stances are large and people are depen- dent on having some means of transport.
What is to be done? How can the pe- ri-urban areas be transformed into habi- tats that take economic, ecological and social requirements equally into consi- deration? How can we develop "bio- sphere parks" that offer people a better quality of life and provide sufficient space for animals and plants?
For the speakers at the Forum it was clear that little will be achieved without involving the local population. It must be possible for the population to influ- ence the development of the landscape directly. In this way the everyday land- scape can once again become a living
space for its inhabitants - one in which they take an interest and for which they take responsibility.
It is equally important to view the landscape as a whole. This means, among other things, moving away from the practice up to now of strictly sepa- rating areas for living from those for trade and industry, and from those for agriculture and for forests.
Mountain regions
Involving the local population also plays a central role in ensuring that mountainous regions are used sustainab- ly. This became apparent at the Forum for Knowledge held at Davos on 28th October. The locals must be able to take part in deciding on important issues.
What also came across strongly was that there can be no uniform approach to sustainable development in the mountains. No two parts of the mountain region are quite the same.
Like a mosaic, the mountain region is made up of a multitude of communities, valleys and regions which may differ considerably from each other, for instance, with respect to geographical position, history, structure, local eco- nomy and development.
A few clear statements about com- merce were also made: mountain regions must concentrate on offering products, services and landscapes that are qualita- tively valuable and sustainably produced and used. And they have to be declared as such. In this way these regions can stand up economically to the competi- tion from the lowlands. Tourism is the most important branch of commerce for the mountain regions. Only with
tourism will it be possible to guarantee the long-term future of the mountain re- gion as "lebensraum", economic area and recreational space. A prerequisite for this is that tourism does not destroy its own basis for living, namely the land- scape and the cultural individuality of the region.
WSL will now pursue the valuable ideas gained from both conferences in two research programmes. One focuses on sustainability in the mountain region, and the other on the "peri-urban bio- sphere park". The important interrelat- ionships between the peri-urban and mountain regions will also be investiga- ted.
Contact:
Dr. Martin Meyer-Grass, SLF Davos Tel. 081-417 02 69
E-mail: meyer-grass@slf.ch
I,
A111111al Report WSL 1999 21
Why (or why not) are large carnivores welcome?
Investigating the attitudes of the Swiss public
80%
70
60 50 40 30
- 20
10
contra
The lynx and the wolf are once again expanding
their territory within June 1999: The fate of the lynx "Tito"
Switzerland. How do the was keeping Switzerland in suspense.
Swiss view this? WSL The Swiss Agency for the Environment, carried out a representa- Forests and Landscape (SAEFL) had gi-
tive survey in summer ven permission to shoot him after he had 1999. The main focus repeatedly killed sheep in Charmey was on the reasons for (Canton Fribourg). Pro and contra Tito accepting or rejecting commentaries were appearing in the the spread of large press. 85% of the callers on the readers'
Wolf
neutral
carnivores. dial-in line of a large tabloid paper said they were in favour of letting Tito live.
On the other hand, according to a survey in Canton Fribourg, the majority of the locals objected to the presence of lynxes.
pro
The case of "Tito" is an example of the kinds of reactions the return of large carnivores can provoke. But what lies behind such contradictory opinions?
Since 1997 WSL has been research- ing the attitudes of the public to large carnivores, particularly to lynxes and wolves. As an initial step, talks (so- called in-depth interviews) were held with selected individuals. On the basis of
Lynx
S1111111e11tal
■ Zurich
contra neutra pro
People i11 cities view large carnivores 11111ch more positively tha11 /1eoJ1le i11 rural areas, as tins example co111par111g the city of Zurich 11·1th the up- per Si111111e11tal valley shows.
22 A111111al Report WSL 1999
these, it was possible to come up with an exact impression of the basic prevailing attitudes and of their origins. In a second step, randomly selected individuals throughout Switzerland were approach- ed via a written survey in summer 1999.
Out of the 3600 questionnaires sent, 1442 were returned completed. It is now possible, on the basis of this representat- ive sample, to make statements about the attitudes of the Swiss public.
Attitude to the wilderness is one decisive factor
One thing is clear: the Swiss are 111
favour of having large carnivores 111
Switzerland. A distinct majority of those asked responded positively.
The researchers were now particu- larly interested in finding out why someone should accept or reject the presence of large carnivores. The survey confirmed that one important factor is whether you are directly affected or not, i.e. whether you could potentially suffer material damage or feel restricted in your freedom of movement. At the same time, however, it became clear that other more deep-seated reasons also played an important role. One such factor is a per- son's underlying attitude towards large carnivores, such as whether they believe they have the right to exist. Another such factor is the person's general attitude to- wards nature and the landscape. Those who are basically in favour of the ex- pansion of nature and of the wilderness without human interference also feel at ease with the spread of large carnivores.
Those who are sceptical about the wil- derness will also tend to reject large car- nivores. How again a person feels about these issues has much to do with their overall value orientation, as the in-depth interviews showed. People who tend to be more traditionally value-oriented are
Is there room for the ly11x a11d the wolf i11 Sw1tzerla11d? Op111io11s are dw,ded.
likely to be more sceptical about both the wilderness spreading and the pre- sence of large carnivores.
By comparison, the age and educa- tional background of respondents were less important factors. Nevertheless, the findings showed that young people and those with more education were inclined to view large carnivores more positively.
Whether respondents knew much or lit- tle about these animals seemed to have virtually no influence on their views.
Rejection in rural areas
These findings about the origins of ac- ceptance or rejection apply to the whole of Switzerland. Whether they apply in the individual regions still has to be in- vestigated since attitudes to the spread of large carnivores vary from region to region. Thus people in the upper Sim- mental valley tend to be against the lynx,
cultural areas is also valued negatively, while in Zurich it is seen as something positive. Thus it is not only, as is often assumed, the fact that people are direct- ly affected that explains their negative attitudes towards large carnivores.
Another very important reason for a negative attitude could be, even in reg- ions like the Simmental, the inhabitants' underlying attitudes towards nature and the landscape, in particular towards the expansion of the wilderness. This inter- pretation is supported by other results.
For example, people in cities such as Zurich, Geneva or Basie generally tend to view large carnivores and afforestat- ion much more positively than do those from rural or Alpine regions.
Conveying the notion of "nature as partner"
From the written survey and the prece-
- There is considerable acceptance of large carnivores in Switzerland as a whole. This will probably increase without specific measures having to be taken as the ongoing shift in va- lues in Swiss society means that the proportion of people who view the wilderness and large carnivores posi- tively will grow.
If this development is to be actively encouraged, then the deep-seated origins of the attitudes will have to be taken into account. Through long-term public relations work, for example, in environmental educa- tion, the public could be introduced to the notion of "nature as partner".
Even in rural areas, where the short- term solution of concrete problems has priority, such a strategy could help to substantially improve atti- tudes towards large carnivores.
WSL will draw on this study of attitudes to large carnivores in making recom- mendations to local and state authori- ties, associations and other interested parties. In addition, WSL has developed a learning workshop for primary school children that can be used for long-term environmental education (http://www.
wsl .ch/I an cl/prod ucts/preda tor/umset- zung.htm).
Going beyond the issue of large car- nivores, this WSL study exemplifies how research can uncover some of the deep- seated origins of social problems and thereby enlarge the spectrum of possible ways of solving these problems.
whereas those from the city of Zurich ding in-depth interviews, WSL draws, are very positive about it (see graphic).
At first glance it would appear that this difference has to do with the higher den- sity of lynxes in the Simmental valley.
But our survey showed that, in the Sim- mental, the afforestation of fallow agri-
among others, the following conclus- Contact:
ions: Marcel Hunziker
Section "Landscape and Society"
Birmensdorf Tel. 01-739 24 59
E-mail: marcel.hunziker@wsl.ch
A111111al Report W'SL 1999 23
A new method for tracing the origins of Norway spruce and oaks
Where did the Norway spruce and oak trees In Switzerland reimmigrate from after the last Ice age? What routes did they take? Genetic analyses provide new answers.
Spmce 111 the Carpatlna11 Mo1111tai11s.
The Carpatlna11s were one of the refugia Ill winch forest trees survwed the last ice age.
Analysis of recolonisation using genetic tools
Sherlock Holmes wants to retrace his assistant's, Dr Watson's, line of fore- fathers back over former centuries. Ob- taining the necessary data proves easy as the name Watson has been passed down from generation to generation. Over the entire course of time it has remained unaltered.
Scientists today proceed in the same sort of way when they want to recon- struct how the forest trees recolonised Central and Northern Europe after the last ice age. They analyse the DNA (de- soxyribonucleic acid = basic genetic code) of mitochondria (the "power stations" of the cells) and chloroplasts (location of photosynthesis). These DNAs are transmitted from one genera- tion to the next largely unchanged. On the basis of the DNA sequences, genea- logical lineages can be identified, even over very extended periods of time.
Using these genetic tools, the origins of the forest trees can then be deduced.
From the East and the Southeast Within the scope of an EU research pro- ject, WSL developed such a method for reconstructing the recolonisation pro- cess of Norway spruce trees. It consists of analysing the DNA of the mitochon- dria. Applying this new method, WSL scientists have analysed Norway spruce trees from all over Europe.
The results not only confirm the findings gained from analysing fossilised pollen distributions, but also enable new and more precise observations. These analyses show that Norway spruce re- immigrated from three different regions (refugia) where it had survived the last ice age: from the area around Moscow, the Carpathian Mountains and from the Eastern and Dinaric Alps. Norway spruce from Russia spread to Northern
Europe and to the Baltic countries.
Trees from the Carpathians recolonised regions of Southeast Europe and Poland.
The Alpine regions were probably colo- nised primarily by trees from the Eastern and Dinaric Alps.
From the South and Southeast
In research for a dissertation at WSL, a similar method was used to analyse the DNA of oak chloroplasts to determine the origin of the oaks in Switzerland to- day. Oaks also survived the last ice age in several refugia located on the Iberian Peninsula, in Italy and in the Balkans.
The DNA analysis of chloroplasts shows that Swiss oak trees originated in Italy and possibly in the Balkans. That is, the oak trees from Italy crossed the Alps near the Simplon and subsequently populated the regions of the Swiss Central Plateau.
Genetic analyses not only allow us to draw conclusions about recolonisa- tion, but are also of direct practical use.
Thus we can identify relatively easily seed lots originating in far away regions.
With this method it is possible to prevent the introduction of foreign trees which may not be adapted to the environ- mental conditions of the site of planting and which may thus affect natural forest stands.
Contact:
Dr. Christoph Sperisen Tel. 01-739 25 97
E-mail: christoph.sperisen@wsl.ch Dr. Reiner Finkeldey
Tel. 01-739 24 89
E-mail: reiner.finkeldey@wsl.ch (Both in Section "Biodiversity", Birmensdorf)
A111111al Report WSL 1999 25
Is mire conservation effective?
Mires of national Import- ance are protected by law in Switzerland. But do the protection measures really work In practice? WSL has developed a method of registering any changes that occur. Initial comparisons will be available in 2003.
Tbe mire plots 1111der study ca11 be fo1111d agai11 at any t1111e with the belp of satel- lite rece111ers. This mea11s that observa- tio11s of the vegetatio11 can be repeated
at a later time i11 the same /Jiots.
26 A111111al Report WSL 1999
New methods allow 11s to check
It was a political bombshell: On 6 De- cember 1987 the Swiss voted, to every- one's surprise, in favour of the so-called
"Rothenthurm-Initiative". This referen- dum demanded that "mires and mire landscapes of special beauty and of nat- ional importance" should be protected.
The yes-vote meant that this protection was laid down in the Swiss Federal Con- stitution.
During the following years, the Swiss government drew up inventories of all the bogs, fens and mire landscapes worthy of protection. WSL also partici- pated in this work. 500 bogs, 1200 fens and 90 mire landscapes were listed for protection, covering a total area of around 1100 ~qu.ue kilometres, which corrc~ponds roughly to the size of Canton Uri. The protection of mires i~
thus the largest nature and landscape conservation undertaking that Swit1cr- land has ever tackled.
Investigating sample areas
But legal protection is one thing; putting the regulations into practice another.
How can we check whether the set goals are really being achieved? It is complete- ly unthinkable to consider visiting all 1700 mires at regular time intervals and recording the state of each one. This would require far too much effort and would be much too expensive. It must, therefore, be possible to monitor the effectiveness of mire protection on the basis of a sample. At the request of the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), WSL has in recent years developed a method that allows efficient monitoring:
- As a first step, 100 areas one square kilometre in size were selected. On the basis of this sample it is possible to make representative statements for Switzerland.
- Researchers determine the perimeter of the mire in these areas with the help of aerial photos. They also re- cord any buildings, installations and signs of human interference.
- Finally comes the fieldwork: each of the 100 sites is inspected on foot and the species of plants growing in sel- ected plots arc listed.
The data collected are systematically analysed and compared with informa- tion, such as the mire inventory, already available. Computers are used to prod- uce various maps and other documenta- tion.
Exact comparisons are possible This method has great advantages:
- Since the researchers have restricted themselves to a sample only and use aerial photos, the costs can be kept within bounds.
- The aerial pictures can be compared with other photos taken at a later date. In this way it is possible to easily check whether the location, shape or size of a mire has changed.
Fieldwork, which is costly and more time-consuming, can then focus on those plots where changes have been noted.
- The data collected using scientific methods in the field can be compared with data collected later.
- Sensitive mires arc only minimally af- fected by the investigations. Thus there are no installations of any kind in the protected areas, and the plots need to be visited only once for each data collection.
