The Role of Technology in Automobile Design and Production

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W O R K I N G P A P E R

THE R O E OF TIXKJOLOGY

E q

A ' B I L E DESIGX A ? ? PRODUcTIaq

I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e for Applied Systems Analysis

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NOT FOR QUOTATION WITHOUT THE PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR

THE

ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY

IN AUTO-

MOBILE DESIGN AND PRODUCI'ION

Dr. L a r s S j o s t e d t

March 1987 WP-87-29

Working P a p e r s are interim r e p o r t s on work of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Applied Systems Analysis a n d h a v e r e c e i v e d only limited review. Views o r opinions e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h o s e of t h e I n s t i t u t e o r of i t s National Member Organizations.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 2361 L a x e n b u r g , Austria

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FOREWORD

The Technology, Economy and Society Program focuses i t s r e s e a r c h on technologi- c a l evolution, competition and a p p r o p r i a t e management s t r a t e g i e s , on a n understanding and identification of those economic and social conditions and c i r - cumstances under which new technologies can evolve and on a n assessment of t h e social a s p e c t s of t h e s e developments,

This r e p o r t , which w a s originally published in Swedish as a contribution t o t h e MIT Future of t h e Automobile Program, attempts t o show how some of t h e s e issues a r e a p p r o a c h e d in t h e automobile industry as succesive generations of passenger c a r s are brought through t h e various s t a g e s from conceptualization t o s e r i e s production.

Thomas H. Lee D i r e c t o r

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ABSTRACT

This mini-essay i s based on work done by t h e Swedish team in t h e technology p a r t of t h e F u t u r e of t h e Automobile Program. This program was initiated by MIT and c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of p r o f e s s o r s Alan Altshuler and Daniel Roos during t h e p e r i o d 1980-84. The automobile i s viewed as a p r o d u c t of a n industrial system. The evolutionary changes of t h i s system a n d i t s major functions of designing and producing a n automobile are described. Examples of experimental car design and i t s role are given. The interplay between i n c r e a s e d u s e of modularization and integration in designs and t h e change from dedicated mechanization t o flexible automation in production i s discussed. The concluding c h a p t e r briefly treats some Swedish experiments with a l t e r n a t i v e production systems, which expli- citly d e a l with t h e social and technical dimensions of t h e system.

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One of t h e f o u r p a r t s

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P a r t C

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of t h e MIT F u t u r e of t h e Automobile Program examined technological opportunities and uncertainties, and r e s u l t e d both in a final c h a p t e r in t h e international core book (Altshuler et al. 1984), which stresses technological opportunities f o r adaptation, and a s e p a r a t e volume on t h e p r o d u c t and production technology of f u t u r e automobiles (Appel and Hilber, 1984). A s e p a r a t e Swedish p r o j e c t t r e a t e d production systems in t h e f u t u r e (Berggren, 1983). This p a p e r is a t r a n s l a t e d and revised version of my contribution to a re- p o r t which summarizes t h e Swedish e f f o r t within t h e F u t u r e of t h e Automobile P r o - gram (Sjostedt, Tenryd. et al., 1984) I t uses material from t h e t h r e e s o u r c e s mentioned above, and s e v e r a l forum p a p e r s , among t h e s e Bianchi and Calderale (1984) and Blodorn (1983). Saab-Scania, SKF and Volvo a l s o generously provided material.

A c e r t a i n Swedish f l a v o r h a s been r e t a i n e d in t h i s translation, p a r t l y because t h e original r e p o r t w a s aimed at a Swedish audience, and p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e r e p o r t w a s intended as a complement to t h e international core volume, and as s u c h , highlights s o m e Swedish r e s e a r c h findings which could not b e included in t h e limit- e d s p a c e of t h e core volume.

This r e p o r t examines t h e automobile as a technical p r o d u c t a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e complicated and changing p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r e c e d e t h e c r e a t i o n of a new automobile. The r e p o r t should b e seen as a complement to o t h e r publications r a t h e r t h a n a s a complete summary. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , only limited a t t e m p t s have been made t o d e s c r i b e possible changes in t h e technical design of f u t u r e automobiles. However, a n extensive international inquiry h a s been c a r r i e d out o n t h i s subject. The r e s u l t s were r e p o r t e d in Appel and Hilber (1984) and in t h e Euroforum '84 Proceedings (1984). No findings have been included from o t h e r s e p a r a t e Swedish p r o j e c t s . Among o t h e r s u b j e c t s , t h e s e p r o j e c t s included a thorough examination of t h e possibilities f o r a l t e r n a t i v e fuels (Bengstrom, S jostedt, Valdsoo and Wedel, 1984 and Valdsoo, 1984) and e l e c t r i c automobiles (Liljemark and P e t t e r s s o n , 1984).

Some o t h e r p r o j e c t r e p o r t s are a l s o included in t h e list of r e f e r e n c e s , such as Grant and Gadde (1984), S t e e n (1984), Sviddn (1984) a n d Solvell and Vahlne (1984).

I t is unfortunately impossible to name a l l those who h a v e made t h i s r e p o r t possible. P r o f e s s o r Hermann Appel from t h e Technische UniversiGt Berlin meri- toriously coordinated t h e international work within t h e technical sector. Profes- sor Mazakasu Iguchi from Tokyo University and P r o f e s s o r Ulf Karlsson from Chal- m e r s Institute of Technology inspired l a r g e segments of t h e outline of t h e r e p o r t and made valuable contributions. The French t e a m l e a d e r , P r o f e s s o r Michel Frybourg a l s o v e r y actively s u p p o r t e d t h e work. E r i k Elgeskog, C h r i s t e r Karlsson and Stephan Wallman contributed valuable information on p r o d u c t development, and Tomas Engstrom critically r e v i s e d t h e c h a p t e r s on production technology.

Staffan Nilsson provided t h e diagrams. The f i r s t translation w a s made by Johan Wernstedt at Chalmers Institute of Technology. Linda Cechura a t IIASA h a s made t h e final t r a n s c r i p t i o n and edited t h e p a p e r .

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I owe my s i n c e r e t h a n k s t o a l l t h o s e both mentioned a n d unmentioned, as well as t o t h e I n s t i t u t e of Management of Innovation a n d Technology in Gothenburg, which holds t h e c o p y r i g h t of my o r i g i n a l r e p o r t , a n d t o IIASA f o r i t s permission t o publish t h i s p a p e r .

Laxenburg, March 1987 L a r s S jostedt

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

xiii A SHORT SUMMARY

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THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

AUTOMOBILE DESIGN AND PRODUCTION

1. THE AUTOMOBILE AS A TECHNICAL SYSTM

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^A^MATURE

PRODUCT WITH AN EVOLUTIONARY DESIGN 1.1 A Hundred-Year-Old T e c h n o l o g y

1.2 Increased C o m p l e x i t y and R a t e o f C h a n g e

2. THE CREATION OF AN AUTOMOBILE

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THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM

AND

ITS CONTROL MECHANISMS

2.1 Planning f o r Products 1 5 y e a r s in A d v a n c e 2.2 T h e R o l e o f P r e D w e l o p m e n t

2.3 From D w e l o p m e n t to Series Production 2.4 Innovation C a p a c i t y and C o m p e t i t i v e n e s s

3. THE MPERIMENTAL AUTOMOBILE

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A TOOL FOR DEYELOPING COMPETENCE

3.1 A S w e d i s h E x p e r i m e n t a l A u t o m o b i l e 3.2 T h e German AUTO 2000 Project

3.3 Other E x a m p l e s o f E x p e r i m e n t a l A u t o m o b i l e s 3.4 C o m p a r i s o n w i t h C a r s Produced in Series

4. MODULARIZATION AND INTEGRATION

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^THEART OF PACKAGING A CAR

4.1 T r a d i t i o n a l D e s i g n Work 4.2 F r o m P r o t o t y p e to Mock-Up

4.3 From Mock-Up to D a t a - B a s e d M a t h e m a t i c a l M o d e l s 4.4 Functional and Structural A n a l y s i s

4.5 C o m p u t e r G r a p h i c s 4.6 E x p e r i m e n t a l T e s t i n g

4.7 C o o p e r a t i o n B e t w e e n D e s i g n e r s and M a n u f a c t u r e r s 4.8 Functional Orientation as an O r g a n i z a t i o n a l

B a s e f o r M o d u l a r i x a t i o n and Integration

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5. SOLUTIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE PARTS

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SOME RECENT EXAMPLES 5.1 Fiat's New 1 - L i t e r E n g i n e "Fire 1 0 0 0

5.2 P l a t f o r m D e s i g n 6 la LCP

5.3 From B e a r i n g s to B e a r i n g U n i t s

6. AUTOMOBILE PRODUCTION

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FROM THE DRIVEN

LINE

TO FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION 6.1 A Short H i s t o r y

6.2 T r a d i t i o n a l Series Production o f A u t o m o b i l e s 6.3 R o b o t i x a t i o n and Flexible Production

6.4 Production D e v e l o p m e n t and Production Preparation 6.5 C o o r d i n a t e d D e v e l o p m e n t and Production

7. THE HUMAN BEING IN PRODUCTION

AND

AS A PART OF A SOCI&TECHNICAL SYSTEM

7.1 E x a m p l e s o f Demand S p e c i f i c a t i o n s 7.2 Organization f o r Working and Learning 7.3 The Renaissance o f the Line in Japan 7.4 b e T h e o r y

7.5 H e a d l i n e s in Production D e v e l o p m e n t in S w e d e n 7.6 T h e Present Situation in V a r i o u s Production Sectors 7.7 Time and Space Restrictions

FIGURES REFERENCES

APPENDIX I

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Participants in the Future o f the A u t o m o b i l e Program P o l i c y Flora

APPENDIX I1

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P a r t - C Membership List APPENDIX

III

-Part-C Papers and R e p o r t s

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A SHORT SUMMAKY

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THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN AUTOMOBILE DESIGN

AND

PRODUCTION

Based o n t h e r e s u l t s of various r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s of t h e Swedish p a r t of t h e Future of t h e Automobile P r o g r a m , t h i s p a p e r attempts to d e s c r i b e t h e organization of t h e system in which automobiles are conceived, designed and built. The p e r s p e c t i v e i s predominantly technical and t h e format h a s t h e c h a r a c t e r of a mini-essay

.

The f i r s t c h a p t e r a p p r o a c h e s t h e automobile as a consumer p r o d u c t and discusses not only how t h e automobile h a s matured during i t s 100 y e a r s of ex- istence, but also how i t s technical complexity h a s i n c r e a s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s under t h e influence of changing conditions.

The n e x t c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s t h e automobile in t h e c o n t e x t of a n industrial sys- t e m and examines some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of such a system. Some c r i t e r i a f o r t h e innovation capacity and competitiveness of a n industrial system are discussed and t h e long times involved in developing and using a car are emphasized.

Experimental c a r s h a v e long been used f o r image building p u r p o s e s and to t e s t e a r l y market r e a c t i o n s as w e l l as t h e performance and reliability of new technical solutions. Lately, t h e y h a v e become a n important tool f o r testing new manufacturing techniques and f o r shaping new business r e l a t i o n s to potential ma- t e r i a l s and component suppliers. Following t h e e n e r g y c r i s i s , a h o r d e of experimental cars were built. Some of t h e s e are briefly p r e s e n t e d with exphasis put on t h e choice of materials.

C h a p t e r Four discusses how t h e p r o c e d u r e of designing a car i s changing u n d e r t h e influence of computer-aided techniques and how t h i s c a n potentially speed up t h e p r o c e s s by allowing many specialist functions to work with a joint d a t a base. This possibility permits some jobs t o b e done simultaneously which were o n c e done only in sequence. Computer-Aided Design i s a l s o t h e connecting link between product integration and p r o c e s s design. The c h a p t e r also p r e s e n t s modularization and integration as means of simplifying t h e packaging of a car and of achieving maximum economies of scale while simultaneously producing a r a n g e of models.

The n e x t c h a p t e r gives some examples of design solutions f o r car and automotive components, which were chosen to highlight t h e design t r e n d s discussed in t h e previous c h a p t e r . One r a t h e r extensive and detailed example is one supplier's long and dedicated e f f o r t to develop i n t e g r a t e d hub units. This example illustrates a s t a b l e t r e n d f o r major component s u p p l i e r s to assume a g r e a t e r responsibility f o r component development. At t h e o t h e r end, are minor suppliers, who tend t o lose t h e i r freedom and become totally dependent on single car manufacturers.

C h a p t e r Six d e s c r i b e s t h e evolution of t h e mechanically paced driven line, so successfully introduced by Ford around 1910, to t h e flexible robotized production systems now being introduced. S t a r t i n g with a brief description of t h e main o p e r a - tions in t h e step-by-step manufacturing of a n automobile, t h e potential f o r roboti- zation i s discussed using r e s u l t s from a n international questionnaire.

A section of C h a p t e r Six discusses t h e g r e a t potential for change being c r e a t - e d by t h e use of flexible automation as opposed to t y p e or model-bound dominated mechanization. Furthermore. when a functional a p p r o a c h to various t a s k s i s s t r e s s e d , t h e clear b o r d e r l i n e t h a t previously existed between blue and white col-

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lar l a b o r tends t o become b l u r r e d while t h e difference between d i r e c t and indirect work a l s o disappears.

The final c h a p t e r t r e a t s t h e human being in manufacturing

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^and^asa n element in a socio-technical system. The c h a p t e r included some observations on Japanese production systems, s t r e s s i n g t h a t in s p i t e of such widely publicized organizational principles as just-in-time production and minimization of times f o r machine setting and adjustments, they are still a d h e r r i n g to t h e mechanically driven line.

Most of t h e material in t h e c h a p t e r is derived from extended r e s e a r c h on al- t e r n a t i v e production systems c a r r i e d out at Chalmers Institute of Technology f i r s t , indepently and l a t e r , under t h e auspices of t h e Future of t h e Automobile Program.

Theories f o r lines are briefly summarized and some main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Swedish development are presented. An example of t h e basic contents of a n a g r e e - ment between unions and management f o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e system i s given, and some systems which have actually been implemented are briefly described.

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THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN

AUTCF

MOBILE DESIGN AND PRODUCTION

Dr. Lars Sjostsdt

Chalmers Institute of Technology Gothenburg, Sweden

1. THE AUTOMOBIIX AS A TECHNICAL

SYSTEM -

^AMATURE PRODUCT WITH AN EVOLUTIONARY DESIGN

1.1. A Hundred-Year- Old T e c h n o l o g y

The c e n t e n a r y of t h e i n t e r n a l combustion engine i s p r e s e n t l y being c e l e b r a t e d throughout t h e West. A c e n t u r y i s a long time, and i t is hardly s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e - f o r e , t h a t t h e automobile i s generally r e g a r d e d as a mature product. To t h e casual o b s e r v e r , a l l "family cars" look m o r e or less alike, n o matter where they were produced. Even 15 y e a r s f r o m today t h a t casual o b s e r v e r will h a v e l i t t l e t r o u b l e recognizing such c a r s , s i n c e m o s t automobiles will s t i l l b e designed to t r a n s p o r t f o u r or five p e r s o n s a n d t h e i r luggage. Obviously, t h i s primary function will continue to d i c t a t e car design f o r decades. Thus t h e car will continue to b e designed around a body t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e d r i v e r , h i s p a s s e n g e r s and t h e i r luggage.

Of c o u r s e , c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l sub-systems are a l s o needed in any vehicle t h a t should t r a n s p o r t both p a s s e n g e r s and loads. F o r example, t h e r e must b e ways to steer, t u r n , d r i v e in r e v e r s e , a n d p r o t e c t t h e vehicle (and i t s occupants) f r o m r o a d vibrations. The car must b e a b l e to s t o p within a r e a s o n a b l e distance. I t must provide a pleasant climate f o r i t s occupants in both summer and winter. T h e r e must b e a system to light t h e way in t h e d a r k and to signal t u r n s and stops.

A list of basic requirements could b e continued in even more detail, but t h e s e examples suffice to i l l u s t r a t e what systems engineers call demand speciJ%cations.

A s t h e primary demands of human beings h a v e not changed substantially in t h e last hundred y e a r s , demand specifications f o r automobiles h a v e also remained con- s t a n t . I t is hardly s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no matter where automobiles are produced, t h e y exhibit c e r t a i n g e n e r a l design p a t t e r n s which v a r y l i t t l e in form or function from model to model, company to company, or country to country.

The demand specifications enumerated above are all r e l a t e d in s o m e way to t h e t r a n s p o r t requirement and thus indirectly r e l a t e d to t h e vehicle's occupants.

But t h e occupants also h a v e direct demands and p r e f e r e n c e s f a r exceeding t h e basic t r a n s p o r t function. Automobile p r o d u c e r s do t h e i r best to satisfy t h e s e demands and p r e f e r e n c e s , a f a c t which is r e f l e c t e d in today's enormous p a l e t t e of luxury a c c e s s o r i e s . I t h a s been estimated t h a t a stripped-down, completely S p a r -

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t a n automobile, which only satisfied t h e t r a n s p o r t function to a s a f e d e g r e e , would c o s t only half t h e m a r k e t p r i c e as t h e same model costs in i t s s t a n d a r d , fully equipped f o r m . The demands and wishes of potential automobile customers are called c o n s u m e r preferences.

Recent changes in production engineering have provided many new opportuni- t i e s f o r satisfying v a r i o u s consumer p r e f e r e n c e s . The automobile h a s long been a symbol of p e r s o n a l freedom. Recent production developments are a f u r t h e r s t e p forward in adapting automobiles to meet individual consumer's p r e f e r e n c e s f a r beyond t h e primary t r a n s p o r t function. C u r r e n t t r e n d s in four-wheel-drive vehicles and spacious cars f o r families with many children and p e t s are examples. One must, however, b e c a r e f u l when comparing t h e s t a n d a r d "world car" with highly differentiated products. In s p i t e of a worldwide t r e n d towards increasing standard- ization, t h e t e c h n i c a l components t h a t fulfill basic functions (and t h a t t h e daily u s e r hardly knows anything a b o u t ) are becoming progressively complex, y e t more standardized. In t h e discussion a b o u t f r e e t r a d e in a n o t h e r p a r t of t h i s r e p o r t i t i s o b s e r v e d t h a t f r e e , international exchange of such high technology components i s one of t h e most important conditions f o r f u r t h e r development in t h e automobile in- d u s t r y .

If a n automobile company wants to succeed on today's intensely competitive market, i t must consider all t h e consumer p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t could influence t h e choice and p u r c h a s e of cars.

In view of t h e automobile's long-term development potential, i t i s n a t u r a l t o c o n c e n t r a t e on providing a technology c a p a b l e of meeting individual demands f o r reasonably p r i c e d t r a n s p o r t in ways t h a t are a c c e p t a b l e

to

society as a whole.

T h e r e will b e many outside o r exogenous demands, such as demands from govern- ments, environmentalists, or o t h e r political a u t h o r i t i e s at various levels on t h e car and i t s use.

In summary, w e c a n distinguish f o u r g r o u p s of f a c t o r s , which may end t h e p r e s e n t tendency towards a s t a n d a r d world car. The f i r s t g r o u p includes exogenous technical c o n d i t i o n s in t h e form of new technologies a n d possible alterna- tive solutions. The second g r o u p i s d i c t a t e d by c h a n g e s i n the e n v i r o n m e n t which may suddenly make i t difficult or impossible

to

p r o d u c e or use t h e car in i t s p r e s e n t form, t h e r e f o r e compelling t h e industry to make technical changes, which may t a k e d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s in d i f f e r e n t countries. The oil c r i s i s of 1974, which r e s u l t e d in f u e l economy requirements, or t h e p r e s e n t f o r e s t die-off, which dic- tates c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r legistlation, are examples t h a t come immediately to mind.

The t h i r d major f a c t o r c a n b e labeled c h a n g e s i n consumer prqferences. N e w or s t r i c t e r d e m a n d s from the a u t h o r i t i e s constitute t h e f o u r t h g r o u p of f a c t o r s . The Clean Air A c t of 1970 in t h e US, which set s t r i c t s t a n d a r d s f o r automobile emissions, o f f e r s a good example. f i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s how t h e f o u r g r o u p s of f a c t o r s influence technical developments in a b r o a d sense. f i g u r e 1 also includes t h e additional dimension of competition between automobile companies, which motivates e a c h company to introduce new technical advantages as quickly as possible.

Competition h a s a n o t h e r effect: To a c h i e v e a maximum margin between market p r i c e s and production costs, all automobile companies s e e k to r e d u c e t h e i r costs by rationalizing production. When t h e r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y f i e r c e competition, or a high inflation r a t e , or t h e c u r r e n c y h a s been devalued, companies are e i t h e r f o r c e d to d e c r e a s e t h e i r p r o f i t margins, or r e d u c e production costs. Thus, t h e r e i s almost permanent p r e s s u r e to lower costs.

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To a c h i e v e h i g h e r p r o f i t s with unchanged p r o d u c t s in situations such as t h o s e d e s c r i b e d above, a company must dramatically i n c r e a s e i t s volume at t h e expense of i t s competitors. Naturally, automobile companies a l s o attempt t o r a i s e p r o f i t s by offering b u y e r s c e r t a i n luxury e x t r a s o r special model v a r i a n t s . This t a c t i c may enable a company to i n c r e a s e i t s t o t a l value added in s p i t e of continuous ra- tionalization. If s u c h t a c t i c s w e r e not possible, t h e automobile industry as a whole would eventually become t h e "poor relative" of t h e industrial sector. Obviously, consumer p r e f e r e n c e s are not t h e only motivating f o r c e behind t h e t r e n d towards more generously equipped cars.

1.2. Increased C o m p l e x i t y and R a t e o f C h a n g e

The a v e r a g e d r i v e r probably thinks his car i s r a t h e r simple from t h e technical point of view, since m o s t c a r s are adapted t o t h e skill level of a v e r a g e d r i v e r s . E a r l y automobile models a l s o seem quite uncomplicated to modern engineers.

Although t h e automobile industry i s t h e l a r g e s t m a s s industry in t h e world today, f o r many d e c a d e s i t did not enjoy v e r y high s t a t u s among academicians and en- g i n e e r s

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with t h e possible exception of production engineers. Relatively few engineering g r a d u a t e s o r s c i e n t i s t s were r e c r u i t e d into car manufacturing, which in t u r n led to a p o o r understanding of t h e automobile industry and i t s conditions out- s i d e t h e industry.

That p i c t u r e h a s since been changed. Heavy components, such as t h e engine and t h e transmission, began to attract i n t e r e s t r a t h e r e a r l y . These components include many applications of mechanical high t e c h , which w a s r e g a r d e d as t h e c o r e of t h e engineering art throughout t h e f i r s t half of t h i s century.

After World War 11, automobile design became steadily m o r e complex. This tendency h a s been intensified in t h e last decade. General technical development, p r o - gressively s t r i c t e r demands from t h e authorities, and environmental a n d attitudi- nal changes caused by t h e e n e r g y c r i s i s during t h e 19701s, have all s p u r r e d development in t h e s a m e direction. Many systems h a v e been developed around a n engine, whose basic function remains unchanged. These are e i t h e r auxiliaries which enable engines t o function in p a r t i c u l a r ways o r a c c e s s o r i e s which fulfill demands f o r c e r t a i n e x t r a functions. At t h e s a m e time, maintenance requirements have h a v e been g r e a t l y reduced. Compare f o r example t h e heating systems and lu- brication schemes for t h e 1960 and 1978 S a a b models shown in Figures 2A

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20.

Developments such as t h e s e naturally place g r e a t demands on technical engineering competence. T h e r e is a n interesting t h e o r y about t h e r e a s o n behind t h e phenomenally r a p i d technical development of t h e West German and Japanese car in- d u s t r i e s a f t e r World War 11. Both c o u n t r i e s w e r e forbidden t o rearm and f o r c e d t o s u p p r e s s all military r e s e a r c h . While t h e engineering e l i t e of o t h e r industrial c o u n t r i e s w a s r e c r u i t e d f o r military r e s e a r c h during t h e times of t h e "Cold War1', gifted e n g i n e e r s in Germany a n d Japan found jobs in t h e i r countries' rapidly ex- panding automobile industries.

Although a modern automobile i s a v e r y complicated product, Swedish techni- c a l universities, in comparison with universities in o t h e r automobile manufacturing countries, did not o f f e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s in automotive engineering until r e c e n t l y . One way of describing t h e complexity of t h e modern car i s to look at t h e g r e a t number of specialist job t i t l e s used by t h e automobile industry itself. Table 1 re-

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p r i n t s t h e job t i t l e s used in t h e 1984 edition of t h e Volvo C a r Corporation's internal telephone d i r e c t o r y . There are no fewer t h a n 64 different categories. P l e a s e note t h a t only technically r e l a t e d job titles have been reproduced.

The t r e n d towards complexity makes i t n a t u r a l t o ask if t h e automobile will survive in t h e long r u n . This question was f i r s t r a i s e d in t h e 1970's when t h e automobile industry was confronted with two difficult problems within a s h o r t time. The f i r s t problem r e s u l t e d from t h e discovery t h a t engine emissions contain dangerous substances and t h e concomitant demands to r e d u c e t h e emissions of lead, hydro- carbons, c a r b o n monoxide and nitrogen oxides as quickly as possible. The second w a s t h e insecurity surrounding long-term fuel supplies, which w a s intensified by t h e a c u t e s h o r t a g e s caused by t h e OPEC embargo in 1974 and t h e e n e r g y c r i s i s in 1979.

The way t h e automobile industry m e t t h e s e problems shows t h a t automobile technology itself i s v e r y s t u r d y , and t h a t t h e industry h a s g r e a t potential f o r adapting quickly t o changing conditions and new demands from consumers and au- t h o r i t i e s worldwide. The p r o c e s s h a s not always been a painless one, however. For example. many companies had operational difficulties with t h e f i r s t genemtion of clean exhaust engines, which, due t o t h e legal c o n s t r a i n t s of t h e Clean Air Act, were r u s h e d onto t h e US market b e f o r e adequate development o r testing had been completed. These technically "unripe" clean a i r engine designs led to accusations t h a t t h e industry lacked any r e a l capacity f o r innovation. Actually, innovation capacity h a s grown considembly, if t h e increasing number of r e g i s t e r e d Japanese and American p a t e n t s i s any indication. S e e Figure 3. Memories of being caught u n p r e p a r e d f o r t h e upheavals of t h e 1970's has motivated renewed i n t e r e s t in r e s e a r c h and development throughout t h e industry in t h e 1980's. Today new components and p a r t s systems are appearing in a constant stream. After complementa- ry testing and p r o d u c t adaptation, they will b e available f o r use whenever environmental o r legal demands make new solutions necessary or desirable. The "technology shelf" i s rapidly being filled, offering development engineers and designers a n ample supply of optimal solutions f o r specific needs.

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2. THE CREATION OF AN AUTOMOBILE

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THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM AND ITS CONTROL MECHANISMS

2.1. Planning f o r Products F i f t e e n Years in A d v a n c e

Having a well-stocked technology shelf does not necessarily mean t h a t i t i s e a s y t o change a n automobile design o r introduce and market a radically new product. T h e r e are many r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d b a r r i e r s which become involved whenever t h e technical design of a car i s changed. The car is p a r t of a complex s t r u c t u r e with many actors whose r o l e s are a f f e c t e d whenever t h e design of t h e car i s changed. This s t r u c t u r e may b e d e s c r i b e d in many ways, and e a c h company chooses whatever b e s t s u i t s t h e i r c u l t u r e and tradition. Thus, i t should b e pointed o u t t h a t t h e a p p r o a c h suggested h e r e is by no means t h e only possibility. A s f i g - u r e 4 shows, one rough division i s t o s e p a r a t e t h e i n d u s t r i a l system, which creates a n automobile via a complex network of r a w material a n d component sup- p l i e r s , and t h e commerciaL system, which m a r k e t s t h e automobile and provides c e r t a i n customer s e r v i c e s , including t h o s e associated with r e p a i r s , s p a r e p a r t s , e x t r a a c c e s s o r i e s , etc. The automobile as a product i s t h e c e n t r a l idea h e r e . P r o d u c t planning c o n t r o l s t h e p r o d u c t development p r o c e s s , which in t u r n c o n t r o l s t h e industrial system.

The need for p r o d u c t planning may b e m e t by various means, ranging from a simple c o n f e r e n c e between t h e managers of t h e responsible systems to t h e estab- lishment of a n independent department f o r p r o d u c t planning. P r o d u c t planning aims primarily a t stengthening a company's competitive advantage by enhancing i t s profile and t h a t of i t s products. Much of t h e input needed for p r o d u c t planning i s feedback f r o m marketing, which i s s e e n as p a r t of t h e commercial system. "Pro- file development" may b e achieved e i t h e r by changing t h e p r o d u c t program, e.g.

by ensuring t h a t t h e company introduces some technical innovation e v e r y y e a r , or by e x e r t i n g d i r e c t influence on t h e commercial a s p e c t s of a product, e.g. by offering w a r r a n t i e s on body damage, o r even by offering customers insurance a t f a v o r a b l e rates. A s all automobile companies hope to a c h i e v e a r e p u t a t i o n f o r high quality, i t i s essential f o r p r o d u c t p l a n n e r s t o identify quality goals and c o n t r o l methods.

The number of actors i s l a r g e both in t h e industrial and t h e commercial sys- t e m s . These are themselves and often in sequential o r d e r responsible f o r t h e i r p a r t of t h e complicated p r o c e s s behind t h e realization of a car. Typically, five to seven y e a r s e l a p s e between t h e conception of a new automobile model and t h e day t h e f i r s t new car r o l l s off t h e s e r i e s production line. Considering t h a t automobile models must b e produced f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s t o amortize investment c o s t s , and t h a t t h e median life expectancy f o r cars i s increasing in all c o u n t r i e s ( s e e f i g u r e 5), i t obviously t a k e s a long time b e f o r e technological innovations c a n a p p e a r on a ma- jority of t h e vehicles on t h e r o a d s .

By international comparison, Swedish cars enjoy a n extremely long lifespan.

Some domestic models h a v e r e a c h e d a median of more t h a n 1 9 y e a r s of s e r v i c e . A s t h e Swedish manufacturers are r a t h e r slow to introduce new models and t h e n re- tain them f o r a long time, w e may conclude t h a t m o r e than half of t h e model genera- tion p r e s e n t l y a t t r a c t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t of Swedish p r o d u c t planners will still b e on t h e r o a d s 30 y e a r s from now, i.e long a f t e r t h e y e a r 2010. Although Swedish conditions are extreme, t h e p i c t u r e is much t h e same in a n international p e r s p e c t i v e , as c a n b e s e e n from Figure 6.

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Why does i t t a k e such a long time t o introduce a new automobile model? Until t h e 1960's a kind of "from t h e bottom up" philosophy w a s common in t h e automobile industry. A single designer o r a s m a l l group of skilled, experienced designers c r e a t e d a new automobile model, working in relatively g r e a t freedom, by assem- bling whatever components they thought suitable. Thus, t h e final r e s u l t was often much influenced by chance. A s long a s c a r s were simple enough f o r one person o r a small group t o have a comprehensive understanding of t h e whole design, t h e 'bottom-up" method often yielded good r e s u l t s at a reasonable cost. A s automobile design became more complex, a h i e r a r c h i c a l division of responsibility became necessary, but t h e basic philosophy r e m a i n e d ' u n ~ h a n ~ e d . Today t h e old method

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one designer, o n e model

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would b e nearly impossible. First, no single designer o r group could e x e c u t e t h e whole design with such simple means. Second, top management is no longer willing t o give t h a t much freedom t o a single designer.

2.2. T h e R o l e o f Pre-Development

The philosophy now in use* w a s inspired by t h e systems analysis methods developed by t h e defence industry. I t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s method t o begin with t h e product as a whole, t h e n examine t h e p a r t s a n d finally r e t u r n t o t h e whole t o a s c e r t a i n if t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s have been achieved. This method r e c u r s used in e a c h s t e p along a r e p e t i t i v e chain of design in which t h e automobile progressively t a k e s shape. The automobile i s described by a set of specifications, which become more and more detailed and which function as a means of communication between t h e many p a r t i e s involved.

The foundation f o r t h e work i s laid through detailed market studies. The r e s u l t s of t h e s e market studies and long-term policy decisions, which, among o t h e r things, consider t h e difficult notion of t h e "image" of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r automobile make, form t h e basis f o r t h e n e x t s t e p : pre-development. A c e n t r a l t a s k in t h i s s t a g e i s t o make a logically consistent and detailed demand s t r u c t u r e , a p r o c e s s which alone may t a k e up t o a y e a r . Once done, t h e demand s t r u c t u r e i s frozen and becomes t h e basis f o r all f u r t h e r development work.

The demand s t r u c t u r e i s then divided into many groups of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . These could include, f o r example, a p p e a r a n c e , driving comfort, fuel economy, p e r - formance, c r a s h s a f e t y , sound level, c o s t of production, and weight. Within each group of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a number of functional demands are specified which r e f e r t o t h e c a r in i t s e n t i r e t y . These demands may be market-related and r e f l e c t consumer p r e f e r e n c e s and changes in t h e surrounding world. The demands may also be legal demands, dictated by s a y , t r a f f i c authorities, o r company demands, designed t o s u p p o r t e i t h e r t h e company's image o r t h e image of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r make. The demands may be formulated in quantitative terms o r merely e x p r e s s d e s i r a b l e qualities. In t h e f o r m e r c a s e , t h e demands may include a description of a test situation which specifies t h e quantitative demand.

The demand f o r c r a s h safety, f o r example, may be specified f o r a number of frequently o c c u r r i n g accident types, such as head-on collisions, side collisions, rear end collisions and overturning. The demands may also specify pedestrian protection, e.g. by limiting t h e aggressiveness and projection of e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s o r

This chapter and t h e following one a r e based on material from a research seminar with Erik El- geskog from t h e Volvo Car Corporation.

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by regulating t h e bumper height.

The functional demands must then b e transformed into demands which apply to specific components in t h e car. This i s done in many s t e p s . First, a number of sub-systems in t h e car are identified. In t h e case of accident safety, t h r e e systems can b e identified; namely: t h e s t r u c t u r e , inner system, and complete vehicle. For e a c h of t h e sub-systems t h e r e l e v a n t functional demands are subdivided into system demands, which are t h e n f u r t h e r subdivided and applied t o t h e individual components. I t should b e noted t h a t e a c h individual component is, as a r u l e , subjected t o many demands originating from different groups of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A f t e r e a c h component h a s been selected from t h e technological shelf o r designed "from s c r a t c h " and subjected t o t h e necessary calculations and t e s t s , attention focuses once again on t h e design in i t s e n t i r e t y . The subsystems are evaluated and t e s t e d according t o previously defined test conditions. Finally, f o r e a c h g r o u p of c h a r a c - t e r i s t i c s , t h e functional demands f o r t h e car in i t s e n t i r e t y are verified. f i g u r e 7 shows t h e p r o c e d u r e schematically.

Normally, not a l l t h e demand requirements c a n b e fulfilled. I t may b e neces- s a r y t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s s e v e r a l times, adJusting t h e demands until a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s are r e a c h e d . On t h e o t h e r hand, if a f i r s t attempt is immediately success- ful, t h e demands may have been

too

cautiously stated. Typically, demand s t r u c t u r e i s frozen after a y e a r and r e t u r n e d t o t h e marketing department, where i t i s checked against continuously updated opinions on t h e expected marketability of t h e proposed c a r on d i f f e r e n t markets. On t h e technical side, work continues by illustrating in detail t h e p r o s p e c t s for realizing t h e a g r e e d upon demand s t r u c - t u r e .

Since no p r o t o t y p e of t h e c a r e x i s t s during t h e development phase, possibili- t i e s f o r testing a r e extremely limited. Instead simulation programs and o t h e r advanced calculation a i d s must b e used. I t i s important, however, t o test under real- istic conditions as much as possible, because deviations in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l methods (in t h e form of calculation e r r o r s , test e r r o r s , o r unforeseen effects) must always b e expected. Component testing is, t h e r e f o r e , a n especially important method during t h e pre-development phase. The t h e o r e t i c a l method, however, c a n provide a valuable r e f e r e n c e , and t h e s e a r c h f o r explanations f o r t h e deviations between t h e theoretically and practically measured values c a n b e v e r y instructive. By using such a step-by-step application t o a specific p r o j e c t t h e o r e t i c a l calculations c a n b e performed more reliably, t h e r e b y successfully replacing time-consuming and expensive testing.

Characteristically, many demands are in opposition t o e a c h o t h e r . Fuel consumption and performance, f o r example, are in open conflict. To a lesser e x t e n t , comfort and good running c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are a l s o conflicting aims. The demand f o r low production c o s t s i s in conflict with nearly a l l t h e o t h e r demands. The pre- development p h a s e i s t h u s one of permanent compromise, where t h e ability t o find a unanimous solution i s t h e key t o continued success.

2.3. From D w e l o p m e n t to Series Production

A f t e r t h e pre-development phase, a detailed examination of t h e p r o J e c t is c a r r i e d out. Then, t h e r e a l p r o d u c t d e s i g n a n d e n g i n e e r i n g work c a n begin. A s c o s t s f o r t h e p r o j e c t i n c r e a s e steeply h e r e a f t e r , t h e pre-development phase must provide a good basis f o r assessing t h e p r o j e c t ' s p r o f i t potential and technical

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r i s k . Extensive calculations of economic r i s k s and r e s u l t s are t h e r e f o r e included in t h e r e p o r t . On one hand t h e s e calculations r e l y on s a l e s f o r e c a s t s f o r d i f f e r e n t markets, including p r i c e estimates f o r specific markets, and on t h e o t h e r , o n care- ful calculations of production costs. The c o s t s f o r t h e continued development work and t h e n e c e s s a r y investments in t h e production plant are t h e r e f o r e a n essential calculation element. If t h e examination yields f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s , t h e p r o j e c t h a s taken a big s t e p forward towards realization.

During t h e design p h a s e a detailed analysis of t h e "designability" of t h e new automobile concept i s begun. The final r e s u l t i s a complete design plan, which d i f f e r s from e a r l i e r ones not only in a c c u r a c y and e x a c t n e s s concerning t h e quali- t i e s t h e car will have, but a l s o in more e x a c t production information. This analysis depends on g r e a t knowledge of what c a n b e t a k e n from t h e technology shelf in t h e form of materials and components from old and new sub-contractors.

When t h e design plan h a s been completed, f u r t h e r examinations are conduct- ed. If t h e s e show positive r e s u l t s , t h e p r o j e c t is continued and moves a h e a d as t h e flow c h a r t in Figure 8 shows schematically. The p e r s p e c t i v e now changes from t h e car as a product t o t h e car as a n object of p r o d u c t i o n in t h e manufacturing process. Responsibility now s h i f t s from t h e designer t o t h e production engineer.

P r e p a r a t i o n for p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s in a detailed plan f o r production. To b e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e plan i s r e a l i s t i c , a p r e - s e r i e s of from a hundred t o a thousand automobiles, i s produced.

After t h e test r e s u l t s of t h e p r e - s e r i e s cars h a v e been evaluated and any n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i o n s o r investments h a v e been made, and a l l t h e o t h e r p r e p a r a - tions f o r production have been completed, t h e magical time of a c t u a l s e r i e s production is finally r e a c h e d . The technical engineering s i d e of t h e job, however, does not end when s e r i e s p r o d u c t i o n begins. I t i s becoming increasingly important f o r car manufacturers t o monitor t h e technical quality of t h e i r products. Quality mon- itoring involves not only curing t h e "childhood diseases" t h a t c a n o o c u r even with c a r e f u l planning, but a l s o r e g u l a r l y checking a n d improving t h e s t a n d a r d product.

Quality c o n t r o l h a s established itself as a n important a n d independent function in close c o n t a c t with t h e end u s e r .

2.4. Innovation Capacity and Competitivencrs

Of c o u r s e , new automobile models, need not b e designed and produced solely by t h e method d e s c r i b e d above. A comparison of e.g., t h e two Swedish automobile p r o d u c e r s shows how differently production development and similar questions can b e handled when t h e r e are significant differences in competition s t r a t e g i e s , even though t h e two companies r e l y on t h e same national engineering community.

A classic way t o judge a company's competitiveness i s t o compare i t , according t o c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a , with t h e leading companies in t h a t branch. In t h e automobile industry t h e r e are t h r e e such c r i t e r i a . The f i r s t i s product technology o r t h e quickly changing art of designing and constructing a car. Process &tXciency, which includes both production techniques and t h e efficient organization of t h e whole chain of production, is t h e second f a c t o r . The t h i r d c r i t e r i o n is market po- s i t i o n , o r t h e company's ranking within d i f f e r e n t segments of t h e market and i t s c h a n c e s t o capitalize on international markets within prevailing t r a d e r e s t r i c t i o n s and hindrances. To a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e h i s t o r y of t h e automobile industry h a s been

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formed by t h e choices made in r e g a r d t o t h e s e c r i t e r i a and t h e gap between applied and best p r a c t i c e .

The Japanese s u p e r i o r i t y in production efficiency i s famous. The American automobile manufacturers possess a potential advantage

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although they may have difficulties capitalizing on i t

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through t h e i r position in s e v e r a l market segments and geographical areas. Although European p r o d u c e r s could b e said to b e in second place in both t h e above r e s p e c t s , they do enjoy technical leadership as f a r as t h e products themselves are concerned, especially in t h e production of small cars and prestigious automobiles with outstanding driving qualities.

A similar analysis of competitiveness, which i s a l s o of i n t e r e s t when advan- t a g e s of scale are analyzed, can b e derived from f o u r s e p a r a t e c r i t e r i a . The f i r s t of t h e s e i s t h e ability to o b t a i n a n d a n a l y z e inJ'ormation. In t h e following p a r t w e will discuss t h e experimental car as a n instrument f o r information gathering.

The second c r i t e r i o n i s t h e ability to u s e i n j b r m a t i o n i n p r o d u c t d e s i g n a n d en- g i n e e r i n g . The t h i r d c r i t e r i o n is p r o d u c t i o n technology and t h e f o u r t h , market- i n g a n d saies. In t h i s section w e will consider only t h e f i r s t t h r e e c r i t e r i a as marketing and sales lies outside t h e technical perspective of t h i s work.

A car model may b e expected to enjoy a product lifespan of at least eight y e a r s , with p e r h a p s a major change t o t h e e x t e r i o r a f t e r f o u r y e a r s . Automobile engine designs normally enjoy a g r e a t e r product lifespan of approximately twenty y e a r s . That i s equivalent t o t h e replacement cycle f o r heavier production equip- ment. What i s i t then t h a t determines whether a company when changing m o d e l s o r making l a r g e investments in production can achieve t h e level of innovation neces- s a r y f o r maintaining o r strengthening i t s competitive position? Obviously, it i s not enough t o b e a l e a d e r in only one of t h e above dimensions. f i g u r e Q attempts to view innovation capacity from a l a r g e r perspective and at t h e same time t o ex- p r e s s t h e Japanese view on t h e r o l e of technical development.

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3. THE EXPERIMENTAL AUTOMOBILE

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A TOOL FOR DEWLOPING COM- PETENCE

In a n automobile company

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as in o t h e r technology intensive industries

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^{i t is}

difficult t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e most advanced developments in r e s e a r c h and technology. Certain preliminary work i s imperative s i n c e s e r i e s produced p r o d u c t s must b e based o n t e s t e d technology. Even if concentration on internal r e s e a r c h and development h a s grown rapidly, t h i s method alone does not enable a company t o k e e p a b r e a s t of all t h e p r o g r e s s being made. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , experimental cars are built, which generally a r e not intended f o r production. Such p r o j e c t s o f f e r ways t o develop a n d maintain l a r g e networks of international e x p e r t s , extending f a r beyond o r d i n a r y contacts. Designing experimental cars provides opportunities t o test function and performance d a t a using new, unconventional solutions and components. The opportunities f o r studying how new solutions and components wili work t o g e t h e r in t h e complicated systems of a n automobile are no l e s s important.

An experimental car not only provides valuable information about what t h e technological shelf h a s t o o f f e r , but a l s o provides information about who c a n o f f e r what, and at what cost. T h e r e f o r e , a n experimental car i s a l s o a n essential tool in developing c o n t a c t s with potential sub-contractors.

A s a r u l e , new solutions o r components which h a v e been successfully t e s t e d in a n experimental car must undergo a long re-design and adaptation p r o c e s s b e f o r e a final design c a n b e found t h a t h a s all t h e n e c e s s a r y quality specifications and can b e produced in s e r i e s at low cost.

3.1. A S w e d i s h E x p e r i m e n t a l A u t o m o b i l e

The Swedish experimental p r o j e c t LCP 2000 ( s e e Figure 10) was conceived at about t h e same time as t h e 'The Future of t h e Automobile" Program and w a s in- s p i r e d by similar t r e n d s . I t may t h e r e f o r e b e of i n t e r e s t t o examine what t h a t project s t r e s s e d and t o t a k e a c l o s e r look at t h e a r e a s i t studied and tested.* LCP stands f o r Light Component P r o j e c t and t h e number 2000 w a s chosen t o indicate i t s time p e r s p e c t i v e . The t a s k w a s t o analyze unprejudicially which production methods, materials, designs, solutions and automobile concepts c a n b e p r a c t i c a l and useful in t h e Year 2000, while giving maximum p r i o r i t y t o low e n e r g y consumption, and t o demonstrate t h e new ideas and design solutions in experimental cars.

Before r e a l design work s t a r t e d with experimental cars, f o u r studies w e r e c a r r i e d out. The f i r s t aimed at analyzing t h e t y p e of body, which b e s t conformed t o customer wishes and expectations. In o r d e r t o combat expected e n e r g y s h o r - t a g e s , t h e traditional family c a r , which h a s s p a c e f o r f o u r o r five p a s s e n g e r s and luggage, w a s abandoned in f a v o r of a vehicle t h a t o f f e r e d s p a c e e i t h e r f o r a d r i v e r and one p a s s e n g e r (and t h e i r luggage) o r f o r a d r i v e r and t h r e e p a s s e n g e r s (without luggage). According t o design specifications, t o p speed had t o b e at l e a s t 1 5 0 km/h and a c c e l e r a t i o n from 0 t o 1 0 0 km/h had t o b e possible in u n d e r 1 2 seconds. Total weight, excluding t h e d r i v e r ' s weight, w a s not t o exceed 700 kg.

The following f a c t s are taken from Volvo's own presentation broschure, but t h e commentary is primarily the author's.

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The a i r r e s i s t a n c e coefficient w a s not t o exceed 0.3, n o r t h e f r o n t area 1.8 kvm.

These limitations w e r e r e g a r d e d as a sufficient contribution to t h e main goal, namely, t h a t fuel consumption should not e x c e e d 0.4 l i t e r p e r 1 0 kms in mixed driving. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e experimental cars should b e s p o r t y , a t t r a c t i v e and a b l e t o fulfill all f o r e s e e a b l e legal demands r e g a r d i n g s a f e t y a n d t h e environment.

In t h e second p a r t of t h e p r o j e c t a n inventory w a s made which consisted p a r t - ly of existing engine and g e a r box components and p a r t l y of components t h a t were s t i l l in e a r l y s t a g e s of development. Testing and. evaluation were c a r r i e d out in cooperation with t w o d i f f e r e n t companies, and included not only conventional engines

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Otto and diesel

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but a l s o g a s turbines, hybrid engines, Stirling engines, e l e c t r i c a l engines, a n d steam engines. Both companies a r r i v e d at t h e same r e s u l t , namely t h a t from a s t r i c t fuel economy point of view t h e b e s t d r i v e line a l t e r n a t i v e f o r this t y p e of vehicle is a three-cylinder, turbo-charged, d i r e c t injection diesel engine. This solution c e r t a i n l y o f f e r s t h e b e s t fuel economy, p a r t i c u l a r l y if i t is also combined with a S t e p l e s s Variable Transmission (SVT).

Two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of three-cylinder, d i r e c t injection engines w e r e t e s t e d and evaluated. The f i r s t i s a v e r y light engine with a magnesium cylinder block.

The engine h a s a swept volume of 1279 cc and yields 37 kW (50 hp). The second i s a insulated cast-iron engine without a cooling mantle in t h e cylinder head. Cooling is achieved by circulating engine l u b r i c a n t around t h e t h e cylinder linings, valves and exhaust i n j e c t o r s . During t h e p r o j e c t , t h i s engine w a s developed f u r t h e r and outfitted with t u r b o - c h a r g e r s and intake a i r inter-cooling, which i n c r e a s e d engine power t o 66 kW (90 hp). With a one-hole-injector this engine exhibits good multi- fuel qualities. Preliminary tests have shown t h a t t h e engine i s relatively indif- f e r e n t to t h e o c t a n e level of t h e f u e l used and c a n b e driven a s well on l o w o c t a n e fuel, sunflower or r a p e oil as on conventional diesel oil. To diminish engine vibrations, especially at l o w revolutions, a special anti-rotating flywheel w a s designed.

Since t h e effective speed r a n g e f o r a diesel engine i s relatively small, a transmission with 6-7 g e a r s is n e c e s s a r y if t h e engine is to work efficiently. The p r o j e c t g r o u p decided t h e r e f o r e t o design a s t e p l e s s v a r i a b l e transmission with a s t e e l chain and a n e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l system f o r both t h e engine and t h e transmission.

Theoretically, t h i s makes i t possible t o achieve lower fuel consumption t h a n with t h e five-geared transmission, which w a s chosen f o r t h e experimental cars.

The t h i r d initial p r o j e c t w a s a comprehensive study of materials, both t h o s e a l r e a d y in use, and t h o s e

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primarily l i g h t e r materials

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t h a t will probably b e used in automobile production in t h e next fifteen y e a r s . The p u r p o s e of t h e study w a s t o find additional s a f e , economical, high quality materials.

One of t h e main principles in t h e automobile industry i s t h a t a weight reduction of 1 0 p e r c e n t yields a 4-5 p e r c e n t reduction in fuel consumption, but, of c o u r s e , weight reductions are themselves v e r y expensive. The f o u r t h and l a s t ini- t i a l study sought t o find answers to two questions: What i s a r e a s o n a b l e cost f o r a weight reduction of 1 kg? And how essential i s e n e r g y efficiency t o t h e consumer?

The study c r e a t e d a detailed model f o r evaluating how t h e choice of materials af- f e c t s t h e market p r i c e of a c a r .

On t h e basis of preliminary studies, f o u r experimental c a r s , which made extensive u s e of light materials, w e r e constructed. Aluminum w a s chosen f o r t h e en- t i r e load-carrying s t r u c t u r e in t h e bottom p l a t e and t h e roof frame. The u s e of aluminum r a t h e r t h a n s t e e l r e d u c e d t h e vehicle's t o t a l weight by approximately 115 kg. Aluminium alloys w e r e a l s o used in t h e s t e e r i n g column, suspension links, b r a k e disks and drums, d o o r p a r t s , a n d t h e nuts and bolts. More than o n e f o u r t h of e a c h experimental c a r ' s t o t a l weight w a s t h a t of t h e aluminum. The load-carrying

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aluminum s t r u c t u r e w a s glue welded, which r e d u c e d t h e number of welds f r o m around 4000 in conventional cars to only a b o u t 500 in t h e experimental vehicle.

Magnesium i s a material with especially interesting qualities. In t h e experimental cars magnesium w a s used in t h e clutch and transmission casing, t h e rims, t h e s t e e r i n g g e a r house, t h e rear suspension links, t h e engine suspension f r a m e , a n d t h e engine block of one of t h e engines. In all, t h e r e are about 50 kg of magnesium alloys p e r vehicle, which c o r r e s p o n d s to seven p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l weight.

Since magnesium i s a n extremely light metal, i t h a s been used extensively in t h e a e r o s p a c e industry. I t i s expensive to produce, b u t as magnesium c a n b e e x t r a c t e d from s e a water, t h e supply i s practically limitless. A cubic meter of sea water yields 1.3 kg of magnesium. The disadvantage of magnesium

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o t h e r t h a n p r i c e

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^{i s}

i t s tendency to c o r r o d e and e r o d e .

The r o o f , hood a n d all o u t e r panels of t h e vehicles were made of heat- tempered plastic. P o l y c a r b o n a t e w a s used f o r t h e s i d e windows. The adjustable pedal s t a n d i s made of fiberglass, as are t h e f r o n t and back s e a t s , and t h e i n n e r panels. Each experimental car contains a t o t a l of a b o u t 200 kg of plastics, r u b b e r , and t e x t i l e s , which c o r r e s p o n d s to a t h i r d of t h e t o t a l weight of t h e vehicle.

Another example of t h e choice of a n unconventional material i s t h e c a r b o n f i b e r reinforcement of t h e d o o r frames. In s p i t e of t h e extensive concentration on new materials, s t e e l a n d cast i r o n still r e p r e s e n t e d a f o u r t h of t h e t o t a l vehicle weight. Many materials, such as ceramics, metalic composites, alloys, a n d light me- t a l s o t h e r t h a n aluminium and magnesium, are considered to b e of i n t e r e s t f o r fu- t u r e automobiles, but, according to p r o j e c t r e s e a r c h e r s , production p r o c e s s e s f o r t h e s e materials are not sufficiently developed to allow t h e i r use in t h e e x p e r i - mental cars.

Table 2 shows some of t h e analyses made of t h e energy efficiency of t h e LCP cars. The t o t a l e n e r g y consumption during t h e lifespan of t h e LCP car amounts to 82,500 kwh. Included in t h i s f i g u r e i s t h e e n e r g y used in t h e production both of t h e materials and t h e vehicle itself, as well as t h e e n e r g y consumed o v e r 10 y e a r s of driving a y e a r l y distance of 15,000 km including e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r normal maintenance. The diagram shows t h a t when t h e e n e r g y saved through re-cycling i s s u b t r a c t e d from t h e total e n e r g y consumed (both in production and driving), e n e r - gy consumption f o r t h e LCP concept vehicle i s nearly 50% lower t h a n t h a t of a n a v e r a g e car. This f i g u r e i s largely t h e r e s u l t of lower fuel consumption, b u t t h e higher re-cycling value a l s o makes a significant contribution.

A s a l r e a d y noted, o n e of t h e values of producing experimental cars l i e s in t h e c r e a t i o n of a n extended c o n t a c t network t h a t usually accompanies s u c h undertak- ings. In t h e LCP P r o j e c t t h i s opportunity was used t o v e r y good advantage. The p r o j e c t group t u r n e d t o e x p e r t s in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s in i t s s e a r c h f o r ideas and e x p e r t i s e . Many companies w e r e involved. and not only functioned as sub- c o n t r a c t o r s b u t a l s o financed t h e i r own contributions. S e v e r a l Norwegian companies engaged in t h e work contributed decisively to t h e metalurgical development of aluminium, magnesium and d i f f e r e n t plastics. Table 3 shows t h e e x t e n t of i n t e r - national cooperation.

Although t h e LCP 2000 experimental car w a s n e v e r intended f o r production, i t did provide v e r y valuable indications of what technology c a n bring in t h e f u t u r e . LCP 2000 indicates what possibilities and limitations c a n b e e x p e c t e d in t h e development of light weight, e n e r g y efficient cars within t h e n e x t twenty y e a r s . However, s i n c e p r e s e n t fuel p r i c e and supply predictions until t h e y e a r 2000 a r e

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much more optimistic than those made in 1979, today's c a r designers are f a r less concerned with producing extremely light, energy efficient c a r s t h a n t h e LCP designers were.

I t may now b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o examine how t h e materials question h a s been handled in some experimental c a r s , and t o compare t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s with some independent f o r e c a s t s about t h e materials t h a t will b e used in f u t u r e series- produced c a r s .

3.2. The German AUTO 2000 Project*

In 1978 t h e West German Federal Government initiated a p r o j e c t t o study how different technical solutions f o r s a f e t y , environmental protection and fuel economy could b e integrated in real production models. The resulting vehicles were t o b e used primarily t o demonstrate new concepts t h a t could b e put into s e r i e s production. A t t h e same time t h e r e w a s t o b e room f o r new technical solutions and ideas. Experimental vehicles w e r e designed in t h r e e weight classes: up t o 1250 kg, 1250 t o 1700 kg, and 1700 t o 2150 kg. Volkswagen p r e s e n t e d a modified Golf, Audi designed a middle-class vehicle reminiscent of t h e Audi 100, and Daimler-Benz developed a vehicle based on t h e design of t h e i r S-class sedans. Collaborators from t h e German universities at Aachen, Berlin, Darmstadt and S t u t t g a r t concen- t r a t e d on designing a n experimental c a r in t h e middle weight class.

All f o u r c a r s were built using existing methods and design principles, which resulted in confining t h e new ideas t o individual components. None of t h e c a r s has a body made completely of aluminium o r plastic. Audi-NSU presented a p r e - assembled chassis of fiber-glass r e i n f o r c e d plastic and a frame-assembled roof element. Both o f f e r examples of technical solutions t h a t could r e p l a c e conventional design principles. The s a m e c a n b e said about Volkswagen's 100 p e r c e n t plastic seat. None of t h e s e solutions, however. yields any significant weight reduction.

Today, t h e production of t h e s e components i s extremely l a b o r intensive. There- f o r e , from a c a r p r o d u c e r ' s point of view, such changes are motivated only if they lead t o g r e a t e r integration and fewer p a r t s . The additional c o s t s of painting, as- sembling and packaging such components must a l s o b e considered. Moreover, t h e manufacturing technology f o r sandwich elements must b e refined and made suitable f o r m a s s production.

A common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e c a r s w a s t h e u s e of plastics f o r t h e hoods and chassis panels, and of aluminium f o r t h e main p a r t s of t h e doors. F o r maximum energy absorbtion in low speed c r a s h e s , polyurethane o r polycarbonate plastics were used f o r t h e bumpers. The load-carrying and energy-absorbing elements in t h e c a r bodies were made of s t e e l , however, in all f o u r designs. Plastic materials a l r e a d y dominate t h e m a s s production of i n t e r i o r fittings, s o no s u r p r i s e s were p r e s e n t e d h e r e . The windshield and adjustable windows w e r e still made of glass, although i t w a s t h i c k e r , but polycarbonate o r a c r y l i c plastics were used in t h e sta- tionary windows and headlights. Aluminium w a s frequently used in body and engine p a r t s . Volkswagen equipped i t s vehicle with a plastic rear a x l e which proved t o have a s h o r t life. Volkswagen's plastic wheel rims a l s o compared badly with t h e

* The t e x t in t h i s and t h e following t w o s e c t i o n s i s primarily a condensed version of BlBdorn (1983).