Master Thesis
submitted within the UNIGIS MSc programme at the Department of Geoinformatics - Z_GIS
University of Salzburg
GIS spatial analysis of urban sprawl and its effects on infrastructure development
in the Metropolitan Municipality of Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa.
by
Ms
Noziphiwo Ngesmane
102921
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Master of Science (Geographical Information Science & Systems) – MSc (GISc)
Advisor:
Ann Olivier
ABSTRACT
The South African history of settlements reveals different approaches to placement and housing of urban dwellers. Various laws that were implemented during the apartheid era crafted a racial segregated settlement patterns across South African cities. The counter post-apartheid policies with the intention to redress the previously disadvantaged
communities contributed to the influx of people in urban areas after the banning of apartheid laws. Both eras had a contribution to the existing settlement patterns (low density development) in the country.
This research thesis examines the land cover change utilizing remote sensing imagery (Landsat7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat5 1991, 2001 & 2009) and GIS (ArcGIS 10.2) to analyze the patterns of urban sprawl in order to identify and understand urban sprawl trends that occur in Ekurhuleni Municipality between 1991 and 2011. Interviews with city planners and document reviews were utilized to qualify urban sprawl in EMM.
The findings indicate that EMM has experienced land cover change between the said period from non-urban to urban land use. This study discovered that Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality is sprawling, with the identification of newly developed informal settlements and different urban sprawl patterns as well as the approach followed to formalize informal settlements through RDP program. The increase in population number in this area versus the land areas seemed to be one of the key indicators to the identification of urban sprawl trends. The impact of this phenomenon on infrastructure development has been revealed. The attempts by the municipality to manage urban sprawl through densification of settlements seem to be costly and its implementation will take long, meanwhile population will still grow. The urban growth management strategy ‘urban edge’ appears to be lacking intensive monitoring.
Key words: Urban sprawl, urban growth, infrastructure development, urban growth management, Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to offer a heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Ann Olivier, who encouraged me and offered her unwavering support throughout the compilation of my thesis.
Thank you to the EMM spatial planning office for granting me an opportunity to interview them and providing me with important planning documentation, this has played an important role to the success of my research.
Thank you to my friends and colleagues who sacrificed throughout the process, the patience and support you gave me is very much appreciated, particularly Zuleiga Maistry thank you very much for your assistance.
To my family (my husband, my kids, my sister and my brother) thank you for
understanding my absence during the period of my studies. You have been there for me at all times your support and encouragement is greatly appreciated.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract………...…...2
Acknowledgements………...………...3
List of Acronyms...8
List of Figures...9
List of Tables...10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH OVERVIEW 1.1. INTRODUCTION………..11
1.2. BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY……….14
1.2.1. Legislation ………...14
1.2.2. Context of the research………...16
1.2.3. The study area………...17
1.3. ISSUES RELATED TO URBAN SPRAWL………...19
1.4. PURPOSE STATEMENT………....20
1.5. RESEARCH QUESTION ………...20
1.6. OBJECTIVES………20
1.7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY………..21
1.8. LIMITATIONS………22
1.9. OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS………...……..23
1.10. CONCLUSION………24
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION………..25
2.1. URBAN SPRAWL CONCEPTUALIZATION……….25
2.2. URBAN SPRAWL OPERATIONALIZED………..29
2.3. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO URBAN SPRAWL………..31
2.4. THE APPLICATION OF GIS IN URBAN SPRAWL……….32
2.5. GLOBAL TRENDS IN URBAN SPRAWL……….34
2.6. NATIONAL TRENDS IN URBAN SPRAWL……….35
2.7. URBAN SPRAWL TRENDS IN GAUTENG PROVINCE………39
2.8. URBAN SPRAWL EFFECTS………..42
2.9. POSSIBLE CONTROL MEASURES TO URBAN SPRAWL……….44
2.10. CONCLUSION………46
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION………..48
3.1. QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES……….48
3.1.1. Research Design…...………...50
3.2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES……….52
3.3. SAMPLING STRATEGY………..53
3.4. DATA COLLECTION………54
3.4.1. Interviews………...………....…54
3.4.2. Document Reviews………...….54
3.5. DATA MANIPULATION AND ANALYSIS METHODS………55
3.5.1. Logical Analysis…...………...55
3.5.2. Narrative Analysis…...………...55
3.6. LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD………56
3.7. CONCLUSION………..56
CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION ………....57
4.1. URBAN SPRAWL TRENDS IN EKURHULENI MUNICIPALITY…………..57
4.1.1. Land use and cover change………...58
4.1.2. Surface area (built up area)………...65
4.1.3. Urban sprawl patterns………...66
4.1.4. Population density………...70
4.2. URBAN SPRAWL IMPACT ON INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMEN...72
4.3. URBAN GROWTH MANAGEMENT………...75
4.3.1. The “urban edge” strategy to urban growth…...75
4.3.2. Densification of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality...79
4.3.3. Formalization of informal settlements……...………80
4.4. CONCLUSION………..82
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. INTRODUCTION………...83
5.2. DISCUSSION ………...84
5.2.1. Urban sprawl trends………...84
5.2.2. Areas projecting expansion (affected by sprawl)……….85
5.2.3. Urban sprawl and infrastructure development………..…...86
5.2.4. Planning and growth management………86
5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS………...87
5.4. CONCLUSION………..88
5.5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY……….89
REFERENCES……….90
APPENDIX A………95
APPENDIX B………...98
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CIF – Capital Investment Framework
EMM – Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality ETM+ - Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus GCRO – Gauteng City Region Observatory
GDACE – Gauteng Department of Agriculture Conservation and Environment GDS – Growth Development Strategy
GIS – Geographic Information System HDA – Housing Development Agency
MSDF – Municipal Spatial Development Framework NDVI- normalized difference vegetation index PDAs – Previously Disadvantaged Areas
RDP – Reconstruction and Development Programme RZs – Reconstruction Zones
SANSA – South African National Space Agency SHI – Social Housing Institutions
USGS – United State Geological Survey
List of figures
Figure 1: Map of a study area……….18 Figure 2: Parameters responsible for urban sprawl in the system………26 Figure 3: Urban growth types/ urban sprawl patterns……….27 Figure 4: Five yearly incremental graph showing percentage of South Africa’s
urbanized population...……….37 Figure 5: The structure of Apartheid city ………...38 Figure 6: Population Density Gauteng vs National (South Africa)………..41 Figure 7: Effects and controls of urban & rural land as a sustainable growth
management strategy………..46 Figure 8: The classification of land use categories 1991-2009………...61 Figure 9: Satellite images of Ekurhuleni land cover change 1991-2009………...62 Figure 10: ArcGIS map of Ekurhuleni land cover/use 2001-2011 census years
per enumeration area……….64 Figure 11: 1991-2009 built-up area ………66 Figure 12: EMM informal settlements……….67
Figure 13: A closer view to urban sprawl patterns in EMM
Figure 13 (a): Linear/ strip development pattern ………...68 Figure 13 (b): Cluster development pattern………69 Figure 13 (c): Leap frog development pattern………70 Figure 14: The ‘Urban Edge’ demarcation 2002, 2007 and 2010
Figure 14(a): EMM boundaries……….77
Figure 14(b): EMM edge 2002-201……….77
Figure 14(c). Northern parts of EMM extending over the edge………..78
Figure 14(d). Zoomed extended northern parts over the edge ………...78
Figure 15: Satellite image of RDP houses near Wadeville, Germiston……….81
Figure 16: Number of low income houses constructed 2004 -2010………...82
List of tables Table 1: Population Density in Gauteng vs National (South Africa)………...41
Table 2: Research Design………51
Table 3: Satellite data and scenes used in the study………...60
Table 4: Land use/ land cover in hectors and percentage of total EMM land area…….62
Table 5: Sample areas on land cover change 2001-2011………...63
Table 6: Population growth rates by municipality 1996, 2001 and 2011………...71
Table 7: Informal settlements in EMM……….73
Table 8: State of infrastructure service access in EMM ………...74
Chapter 1
Introduction and Research Overview
1.1. Introduction
The urban areas are growing on a very rapid rate in many countries, this result to enormous expansion of urban areas more especially on the periphery. The persistence of this occurrence is apparent in developing countries where levels of unemployment in rural areas are high, and people tend to migrate to urban areas in search of job
opportunities (Ooi G.L. and Phua K.H.,2007). Both poverty and vulnerability are the contributing factors to migration, in case of 1) poverty- people will move to areas where chances of getting employment are better than where they originate and standard of living is higher. Conversely, in case of 2) vulnerability- people opt to leave their areas due to other pushing factors such as wars, natural disasters (asylum seekers) etc.
(Waddington, H. and Sabates-Wheeler, R. (2003). Many of the cities that are affected by migration face overcrowding, pollution, and poverty and the economic growth do not match the population growth. (Waddington, H. and Sabates-Wheeler, R. (2003) further state that there is evidence that migration does play a significant role in poor people's livelihood strategies throughout the developing world. This implies that somehow, migration may be viewed as an alternative to social problems as stated above.
The United Nations Habitat (2009) also share the same sentiments on urban change in the developing world that does not always follow identical patterns or trends.
Urbanization in Africa is characterized by disproportionately high concentrations of people in the largest cities and by very high annual slum growth rates of more than 4%.
Before 1994, urban centers were not accessible to certain ethnic groups. Access to towns and cities was regulated by the laws such as the Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 and Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act of 1945. These regulations were implemented to reduce influx to urban areas. The enforcement of apartheid policies on segregation of settlements played a major contribution to the horizontal expansion of urban areas as people were segregated according to their racial belonging. Horn, A (2009) also argues that Apartheid regime has influenced the urban form by enforcing policies and legislation that manifested racial segregation.
In the post-apartheid era, the settlement segregation has now been influenced by not only legislation but also economic in equalities. These inequalities push the poorer away from the inner city (which is referred to as the area in or near the center of a large city where people live.(Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, 2003)), as they cannot afford rentals and formal houses in this area. The poor communities are faced with the challenge of affording formal houses and they opt to build shacks in unused/ vacant land. These uncontrolled forms of urban expansion result to urban sprawl, which is one of the major challenges facing the metropolitan municipalities. Horn, A. (2009), further states that the spatial consequences of Apartheid found appearance in Black
settlements that are located far from the city separated from mostly white areas by industrial and environmental buffer zones. The location of black settlements in relation to economic and social opportunities was a key contributor to the levels of poverty experienced in the rural and peri-urban areas of South Africa.
According to the Social Housing Act, No. 16 of 2008, the Social Housing Programme seeks to provide ‘rental or cooperative housing options for low-income person provided by accredited social housing institutions (SHIs) and in designated restructuring zones (RZs)’. If this initiative of restructuring of zones is successfully implemented, it might yield positive results and contribute positively towards the curbing of Urban Sprawl and its effects. This will minimize land invasions as land use zones will be properly
demarcated (Housing Development Agency, 2013).
Effects of urban sprawl have been described by researchers such as Squires, G.D.
(2002), as having “ negative effects on social and economic conditions of the
communities; increased costs for transport infrastructure maintenance; adverse impact on spatial development of the city (distribution of land use) and general provision of infrastructure to communities”.
Urban sprawl is defined as by Ewing R.H (2008) as “the natural expansion of metropolitan area as population grows and to haphazard or unplanned growth, whatever form it may take”.
In this research, the researcher does not wish to be confined to individual aspects of sprawl based on previous studies or various definitions. but to allow the study to reveal the trends and effects of urban sprawl in the identified study area. The research findings will be articulated at a later stage. The study will be limited to the Ekurhuleni
Metropolitan Municipality, which is located in the Gauteng province.
The research report will outline the sequence of actions taken by the researcher in investigating and establishing the trends and effects of urban sprawl in the Ekurhuleni municipalities. The study falls within explorative qualitative research method, as it attempts to investigate, establish and understand the trends of urban sprawl and how it affects infrastructure development in this municipality.
The remainder of this chapter provides a background of the study and highlights the problem and purpose statements, accompanied by the supporting research questions.
Chapter 2 is the literature review that will focus on urban sprawl in South Africa and the international contexts. Chapter 3 will provide a comprehensive description of the
research methodology utilized. Chapter 4 will present the data collected during
interviews and analysis of the secondary data. Chapter 5 will focus on discussions and recommendations. The research will lay off with an overall conclusion based on the findings of the research as well as suitable recommendations to curb urban sprawl and its effects on infrastructure.
1.2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.2.1. Legislation
“The future for which South Africans are yearning has to be built on the foundations of the past we have inherited. The past has its beauty. It also has many ugly parts. We have little choice but to embrace the
reality of that past as a whole....” Ramphele (2008: 15) quoted in Smith, TNK (2010).
The pre-apartheid and apartheid laws (Mines and Works Act of 1911, the Native Land Act of 1913, the Urban Area Act of 1923, and the Native Trust and Land Act of 1936), racially segregated people of South Africa and these segregations affected the
population economically, Griffiths, F. M. (2013). The Native Act was utilized as an influx controlling measure. Pass documents were serving as temporary access to the cities.
Black South Africans who were granted this access mostly were migrant laborers.
These people were originally from the “homelands” which are mostly rural, and they moved to urban areas in search of job opportunities. Migrant labor practice opened access to urban areas for rural dwellers. As people in search of job opportunities and better standard of living increased proportionally to the increased population in cities.
The migrant laborers were only accommodated in hostels and low income class areas outside the cities.
In 1994, democracy in South Africa was born, and the apartheid laws were abolished.
This fueled the movement of people from rural to urban areas. The drastic movement to urban areas resulted to an increased need for housing. In instances where people could not find jobs and afford accommodation in formal housing, they opted for informal
settlements. Reed, H.E, (2013) fully supports that there is free movement today, yet the legacies of apartheid remain in the spatial and economic distribution of the population.
The South African government introduced the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) as a transformation strategy to redress the previously deprived
communities, which aimed at improving the quality of life by providing basic needs and building infrastructure (White Paper on Reconstruction and Development, 1994). This
initiative also has an impact on the settlement patterns of South Africans. Mostly the RDP houses are built on informal settlement areas to replace the shacks. Therefore this contributes largely to the sprawling of urban areas. However, despite all the efforts to eradicate informal settlements by building RDP houses (as part of infrastructure development), informal settlements still exist.
There is still a high demand for infrastructure development, as revealed in the speech by the deputy president of South Africa, Kgalema Mothlanthe which emphasises the importance of and the urgency to developing infrastructure when he says “the pace of infrastructure development is lagging behind with what the country needs, more needs to be done and it needs to be done faster” Mail and Guardian (April 2012). This suggests that there is a need for proper planning in order to fast track the process.
However, in order to plan properly, analysis of the current situation is vital so as to identify the gaps. This development of infrastructure obviously will focus on disadvantaged areas as priority, whether in a form of providing houses or electricity, water and sanitation (services) one way or another this will contribute to the urban sprawl.
Informal settlements used to be found on the periphery of towns and cities; they are now to be found within urban areas themselves, as urban areas are where most economic opportunities are found. For the reason that informal settlements are not guided by spatial planning and related processes, they often do not have proper infrastructure (sanitation, electricity or water services) (Spatial Planning Directives, 2012). This is also supported in the United nation’s paper that, “rapid urbanization trends have resulted from rural urban migration and internal growth of cities and towns.
Increasing population pressures in towns had led to urban sprawl, usually accompanied by unplanned settlements within city boundaries and on urban fringes” which result to lack of basic infrastructure services such as water, sewer, roads, drainage, sanitation, waste disposal, electricity and telecommunication (United Nations Habitat. 2009).
1.2.2. Context of the research
This study investigates the urban sprawl trends and sprawl effects on infrastructure development in the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality (EMM). This metropolitan municipality is located on the eastern part of the Gauteng province, the former East Rand region. Ekurhuleni is one of the five municipalities in the province. During the apartheid era, Gauteng was a center of attraction and heavily affected by influx due to mineral production. Many people migrated from rural areas to work in the mines in this province.
Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality is the fourth largest Municipality in South Africa,and was formed in the year 2000. It is situated on the East of Johannesburg and on the South of Tshwane. This municipality was known as East Rand region which consisted of nine separate municipalities. EMM united the following municipalities into one: Alberton, Benoni, Boksburg, Brakpan, Germiston, Kempton Park/ Thembisa, Edenvale, Nigel, Springs, Khayalami Metropolitan Council and Eastern Gauteng Service Council (EMM Energy Report November 2004).
EMM former East Rand was founded on gold mining and rich coal deposits in Springs.
The area provides access to transport infrastructure i.e., the OR Tambo International Airport and the major railway routes for example Germiston. The Gauteng Tourism Authority confirms that urban sprawl is occurring in the areas in many areas of EMM.
The above mentioned attributes of EMM might be contributory to its levels of sprawl.
EMM covers an area of 1.975 km2, with the total population of 3.178.470, this result to an average density of 1.609.4 per km2. The population growth rate in this area has been 4.1 between 1996 and 2.5 between 2001 and 2011 (Statistics SA, 2011).
This study will therefore examine the effects of urban sprawl on infrastructure development through GIS spatial analysis. The American Heritage dictionary (2009), defines Urban Sprawl as “unplanned, uncontrollable spreading of urban development into areas adjoining the edge of the city”. Urban sprawl and growth is one of the key
spatial aspects that need to be considered when developing infrastructure in sprawling areas.
The infrastructure that this research is referring to is electrification, roads, water supply sanitation and other amenities. Informal settlements mostly affect urban sprawl and in some instances they are the end result of urban sprawl and growth. With the consistent influx of people to urban areas in search of job opportunities and the natural increase in population within urban areas, this increases the demand for infrastructure development. With the increase in infrastructure demand, tools such as GIS become of great value to analyse the spatial patterns and depict the spatial trends in which the analysis can assist in planning.
1.2.3. The study area
As highlighted above the research will be conducted in the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality, in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The red enclosed area is the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality which is bordered by Tshwane on the north, Johannesburg on the west, Sedibeng on the south and Mpumalanga province. The maps below illustrate the location of the study area from national, provincial to local level.
South Africa Gauteng Province
Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality (EMM)
Fig1. Image Adapted from Geography Gauteng Tourism Authority . Fig 2. A Closer view to the study area, source: the Local government handbook. http://www.localgovernment.co.za/metropolitans
1.3. ISSUES RELATED TO URBAN SPRAWL
An alarming rate of increase in urban sprawl is a global challenge, it is not only limited to South Africa, a typical example of sprawl is experienced in Ohio, in the United States of America, where sprawl is claiming farmland at the rate of 1.2 million acres (equivalent to 10.5 million hectares) a year. It is also noted by the United Nations Centre for
Human Settlements that the following are key challenges in urban areas associated to urban sprawl:
Rapid urbanization trends have resulted from rural urban migration and internal growth of cities and towns. Increasing population pressures in towns have led to urban sprawl, usually accompanied by unplanned settlements within city boundaries and on urban fringes and this has resulted in haphazard, unplanned or distorted development in the main urban centers coupled with inadequate living standards and high incidence of poverty levels. Urban sprawl result to lack of basic infrastructure services such as water, sewer, roads, drainage, sanitation, waste disposal, electricity and telecommunication.
Change in land cover due to rapid growth of the urban areas, has an environmental impact.
These challenges raised concern for examining and understanding the trends and effects of urban sprawl more especially to infrastructure development which is the main drive/pillar of life in urban areas. EMM is one of the urban areas affected by sprawl, Huchzermeyer ,M.et al. (2004), established that the population growth of Ekurhuleni municipality is estimated at 17 000 households per year, and projected that the growth will be 13 600 households per year in 2010. The Informal settlements in Ekurhuleni provide homes to 130 000 households, this shows how fast the population is growing parallel with the need to develop and formalize informal settlements. As reported by Human Settlement Portfolio Committee (2012), EMM has about 119 informal
settlements. This is a symbol of rapidly increasing population.
A study conducted in India by Chadchan, J and Shankar, R (2012) to observe the nature of changes and patterns of urban growth between 1991 and 2001, reveals that
housing shortage has contributed to the rapid growth of slum population across metropolitan cities in India.
1.4. PURPOSE STATEMENT
The purpose of this research is to use both spatial and non-spatial approaches in measuring the trends of urban sprawl in Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and how this phenomenon affects the development of infrastructure. This will be investigated by focusing on informal settlements which happened to be the result of many factors that are related to urban sprawl, ranging from urbanization, natural growth rate, racial segregation, economic inequalities and poverty. Therefore there is a need to study the challenges related to urban sprawl in the identified study area. Sudhira et al. (2004) state that understanding the patterns of urban sprawl can help with natural resource planning, natural resource utilization, and the provision of infrastructure facilities.
1.5. RESEARCH QUESTION
The following research question below will guide the research in an attempt to answer the research problem articulated above;
Is there a trend (s) in urban sprawl in the Ekurhuleni municipality, and how does it impact on infrastructure development?
1.6. OBJECTIVES
Analyse remote sensing and census data to examine the urban sprawl trends.
- Spatial analysis of Municipal data to identify areas affected by urban sprawl.
- To conduct interviews in order to establish urban sprawl as a phenomenon
- To establish the impact of urban sprawl to infrastructure development.
- Lastly, to look at how GIS in the Ekurhuleni Municipality cater for the formalization of existing informal settlements where there will be a need for infrastructure
development.
1.7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The World’s urban-dwelling population has increased rapidly since the end of the 19th century and overall percentage has risen from 13% in 1900 to 49% in 2005, a figure expected to reach 60% by 2030. The negative environmental impacts associated with urbanization, such as loss of cultivated land and biodiversity are linked to the patterns of land use, specifically awkward and low-density urban sprawl, which has increased at alarming rates in many countries worldwide. The statistical data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations showed that the World’s cultivated land area was 1.401 billion hectares in 1990, and it dropped to 1.381 billion hectares in 2008; with the continued population growth, the World’s cultivated land per capita was 0.265 ha in1990, and it dropped to 0.205 ha in 2008 (Su, W. and Ye, G. 2014).
Therefore it is evident from the paragraph above that urban sprawl is increasing at an alarming rate and continues to destroy the structure of the cities and continuously hinders the development of new infrastructure. The sprawl also put a lot of pressure on the existing infrastructure and urban resources. It is crucial to have an understanding of the trends in urban sprawl and also monitor the sprawl in order to ensure proper
planning for current and future.
The findings of this research will contribute in general planning to cater for the effects of urban sprawl; intensify the understanding of areas affected by sprawl and also leverage on the measures to monitor and control effects of sprawl. The exposure of urban sprawl trends by this research and the representation of GIS techniques as a spatial
information system should help encourage and stimulate interest of the local
municipality to utilize such technologies for planning and analysis of population information.
This study will identify the land cover changes over a certain period which will reveal the rate of change and occupation of unused land by informal settlements. Therefore this study will be of great value to the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and other scholars that will have an interest in same field.
1.8. LIMITATIONS ANDTHE SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The research will be confined to a single study of Ekurhuleni Municipality and it can only be generalizable to areas with similar circumstances. However, the aim of the research is not to provide generalizations, but to provide an in depth analysis of urban sprawl in relation to infrastructure development in consideration of fast growing urban population.
This aim will be obtained through the deployment of Geographical information system (GIS) techniques.
- The research method will be limited to a more contextual details (meaning) rather than statistical analysis
- No attention will be given to the technical aspects of GIS the focus will be on the analysis functionality of GIS.
- The research results will be limited to narrative descriptions rather than detailed numerical statistics.
- Lack of cooperation by other parties (data sources) with regards to accessibility of data as well as accuracy of data as the data will be sourced from different parties.
- the scope of the study is big, therefore a survey data collection method will be time consuming, therefore an interview option will be taken to collect primary data from EMM office.
1.9. OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS
This section provides an outline of the chapters that will be contained in the research report.
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter explains the context of the research and highlights the aim of the research.
The chapter includes the majority of the aspects (background, research problem, purpose statement, research questions, significance of the research and limitations of the study) contained in the research proposal. It sets the tone for the remainder of the research report and focuses the reader’s attention on the particular problem to be investigated.
Chapter 2: Literature review
This chapter serves to demonstrate the researcher’s ability to find, collect and analyze literature relevant to the research. It is divided into subsections and highlights the major debates around the topic. It identifies similarities and differences and attempts to show how the literature reviewed will assist in resolving the research problem.
Chapter 3: Research methodology
This chapter will highlight the methodology utilized, and the reasons for implementing specific data collection techniques. It also indicates the strengths and weaknesses of particular approaches.
Chapter 4: Data presentation and analysis
This chapter will visually represent the findings of the research, using various data representation tools more especially the power of GIS. It will then analyze the data and provide a detailed discussion of particular themes and categories.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and recommendations
This chapter will summarize the research findings and close the loop through linking the findings to the research problem. This chapter will strengthen consistency between data presentation and analysis (linking the voice of the literature with the data collected and the interpretation of the findings by the researcher). The research will make
recommendations based on the research outcome.
1.9 CONCLUSION
This chapter has presented an outline overview on what this research entails. Highlights on all chapters are provided to clarify its objectives. As this research focuses on the following key areas; GIS as spatial analysis tool, urban sprawl and effects on
infrastructure development; these areas are briefly defined in this chapter, more details will be revealed in other chapters.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter is aimed at reviewing the studies that were previously conducted in relation to the research problem. In order to examine the various issues related/ relevant to this research. Literature review is divided into subsections that will allow the reader to follow the logic sequences of documented evidence and ease referencing. The specific aim of literature review in this research is to discuss the concept of urban sprawl as a
phenomenon and its operations. In this chapter the different methodological approaches that were applied in previous researches will be highlighted. Most importantly the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in urban sprawl researches will be exposed.
The power of GIS as a spatial analysis tool will be revealed on how it can portray trends in urban sprawl at both national and global levels. The main findings of the literature review will be reiterated in the conclusion, which attempts to demonstrate how the reviewed literature will assist in answering the research problem.
2.1. Urban Sprawl Conceptualization
An urban area is considered as a system, integrating physical, social, economic, ecological, environmental, infrastructure and institutional subsystems; where urban sprawl is an outcome of change in performance / functioning of these subsystems. It is therefore revealed that there are mainly three parameters controlling the urban system functionality, those are: population, connectivity and functions responsible for the urban sprawl in the urban system as represented below in Figure. 2. (Sonar, S.G. 2008). The figure below depicts the intertwined parameters and symbolizes how these parameters contribute towards urban sprawl
Fig. 2. Parameters Responsible for Urban Sprawl in the System. Adopted from Sonar, S.G.(2008)
This figure clearly portrays how the function in which social and economic activities that are performed in the urban area could in conjunction with population which is attracted to the city by such activities contribute to the sprawling of the urban centers. The
connectivity to the city that is linked to the proximity of settlements to the city to and fro, also contributes to sprawl, as availability of transportation would lead to people settling in the outskirts of the towns. Briefly this figure reveals the main attributes of urban sprawl.
Urban sprawl as a concept is described by different authors based on different viewpoints: Batta, B (2010; 8) expresses the fact that there is no clear definition of urban sprawl as a concept, when stating that “urban sprawl if often discussed without any associated definition at all”…’sprawl can alternatively or simultaneously refer to certain patterns of land use, processes of land development, causes of particular land use behavior and consequences of land use behavior”
Ewing R.H. (2008.519) defines urban sprawl as a phenomenon that is “…equated to the natural expansion of metropolitan area as population grows and to haphazard or
unplanned growth, whatever form it may take.” Ewing, continues to explain and describe urban sprawls as an undesirable land use pattern, whether scattered development, leapfrog development, strip ribbon development or continuous low density development.
(Sudhira et al 2004) also defines sprawl as urbanization that takes place in either a radial direction around a well-established city or linearly along the highways over a given period of time.
The figure below depicts the urban sprawl/growth patterns mentioned in the above definitions. What comes up strongly in these definitions is that developments are unplanned and they occur haphazardly along/around a feature of interest.
Fig 3. Urban growth types/urban sprawl patterns. Adopted from Alimeida, B. (2005)
Brunner A. (n.d) comes up with another view point that highlights the consequences of sprawling. That, “urban sprawl is a multifaceted concept, which includes the spreading outwards of a city and its suburbs to its outskirts to low density…” Brunner A, further reveals that urban sprawl comprises two main types – one is characterized by large peri-urban areas with informal and illegal patterns of land use, lack of infrastructure, public facilities and basic services, and often is accompanied by little or no public transport and by in adequate access to roads. The second form is categorized as a suburban sprawl in which middle –income groups and high valued commercial and retail complexes are well connected. This highlights the consequences of urban sprawl in relation to services, which is very critical with regards to the wellbeing of the dwellers that occupy un-serviced land, which has a huge financial implication to the local municipalities.
As urban growth occurs, such growth is often confused with urban sprawl. However, there is a distinction between urban growth and urban sprawl. Cities often experience growth either physically, by population, or by a combination of both. Urban sprawl is much more complicated because it may or may not qualify as urban growth. How a city grows can create the appearance of sprawl. Such urban growth may appear as a low- density leapfrog pattern, a linear or strip development pattern along highways, or a tightly condensed pattern of new development around pre-existing built-up landscapes (Berkley, A. 2005).
The urban sprawl definition is mostly based on development patterns and its causes.
Hence it is vital to as well define urban growth as there is a link between the two.
Berkely, A. (2005), states that without urban growth there would be no appearance of urban sprawl. The patterns represented by sprawling landscapes are aligned with the definition of the word sprawl. However, urban growth may have more of a planned appearance while the pattern of sprawl often appears awkward, uncontrolled, and haphazard.
United Nations Children's Fund, former UNICEF (2012) defines urban growth as the relative or absolute increase in the number of people who live in towns and cities. The pace of urban population growth depends on 1) the natural increase of the urban population, 2) the population gained by urban areas through both net rural-urban migration and 3) the reclassification of rural settlements into cities and towns.
From the definitions and descriptions of urban sprawl by the different authors above are as follows: Ewing defines urban sprawl based on patterns; Sudhira describes urban sprawl based on the area of occurrence; Brunner’s definition of urban sprawl is highlighting the consequences of a sprawling city; while Unicef is focusing on
contributing factors to urban sprawl. Berkley combines both development pattern and associate sprawl to urban growth.
Galster G et al (2001; 681) concludes that “urban sprawl has become the metaphor of choice for the shortcomings of the suburbs and frustrations of the inner cities” which
implies that the consequences of a sprawling city affect all that live in it, one way or the other.
2.2. Urban sprawl operationalization
To assess the spread of urban sprawl, different urban sprawl datasets can be used.
“Since there is no common definition of urban sprawl, there is also no common
operationalization on how to measure the degree of urban sprawl” Thaler L (2014;20), which implies that any suitable measures and matrices that can be applied based on uniqueness of study environment to enhance the outcomes. Below is the
operationalization of urban sprawl through different measures, by different authors expressing ways suitable to study urban sprawl phenomenon.
Wilson et al (2003) portrays how people have different views about urban sprawl, by citing that urban sprawl has been described using quantitative measures, qualitative terms, attitudinal explanations, and landscape patterns. Almeida further describe the urban sprawl complexity which is difficult to gauge and model, and therefore suggest the creation of an urban growth model instead of an urban sprawl model allows the quantification of the amount of land that has changed to different urban uses over a period of time, and enables individuals to decide what could be considered as urban sprawl.
Almeida B (2005) highlights the importance of deploying a variety of tools and measures in order to understand urban sprawl. To understand the nature of sprawl it is important to consider many different urban growth dynamics including population growth, land change practices, and market forces (e.g. employment opportunities) that pose attraction to the urban areas. There are many ways to measure urban dynamics in urban sprawl. Researchers conducted in different countries where different models, measures and matrices are applied to measure urban sprawl, reflect on the studies below.
The study conducted by Huan, S et al (2008) investigated the spatial pattern of land conversion in the Taoyuan area of Taipei by interpreting the 1990 and 2006 SPOT images for comparison with the land cover map of 1971. The calculations of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) were done to compare the vegetation greenness on the two satellite images. Huang et al utilized eight landscape metrics to analyze the spatial and temporal changes of landscape patterns of peri-urbanization in Taipei. The eight metrics that were used are: the total urban area, the number of urban patches, mean urban patch area, largest patch index, area-weighted mean shape index, area-weighted mean patch fractal dimension index, edge density of urban area, and contagion index
In a study conducted in Metropolitan Statistical Area of Richmond by Almeida, B.
(2005), Geographic Information Systems mapping, land cover change analysis,
neighborhood statistics, community surveying, interviews with planners and developers, and planning documents to measure sprawl were utilized to detect and assess urban sprawl. In another study conducted in India, an analysis of urban growth from remote sensing data, as a pattern and process assist in understanding how an urban landscape is changing through time (Wilson et al., 2003).
Remote sensing seems to be prevalent in the studies of urban sprawl, as Ramachandra T. V&Sudhira, H. S (n.d.) also had used indicators that comprise spatial metrics derived from temporal satellite remote sensing data and other metrics obtained from a house- hold survey in a study conducted in Bangalore, India. This suggests that remote sensing coupled with other tools to study urban sprawl assist in ensuring maximum
accomplishment of research outcome.
Mapping urban phenomena is a crucial part of quantifying urban sprawl. Many layers of data are used to create a map of urban growth ultimately it is the map that tells the story about the level of urban sprawl over a given landscape (Almeida, B. 2005). Ewing, R et.al.(n.d).in Paper No. 03-4195 point out residential density as one of the sprawl
indicators to assess the degree of sprawl at the metropolitan level. In which the average
density can be computed for the urban sections collectively. Alternatively, densities can be computed for subareas and the degree of metropolitan sprawl judged by the
proportion of the metropolitan population living above or below threshold densities.
Almeida,B. (2005), also highlights the importance of qualitative information/ data in an urban sprawl research by stating that “…quantification of urban growth often involves a direct measurement of new built-up or urban land, however, it is also important to
include qualitative information such as socio-economic factors which are important in attracting residents to a new development, potentially leading to urban sprawl”.
Generally, to detect urban sprawl variety of measures and matrices are encouraged.
These measures range from land cover change, population density, population growth, market forces etc. Even though it is complicated to model urban sprawl due to its complexity, land cover change comes up strongly in most of the studies as one of the measures or indicators of urban sprawl. This suggests that detection and analysis of land cover changes could produce reliable results.
2.3. Methodological approaches to sprawl
The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) modeling has become quite prevalent within the field of urban sprawl research. Some research on urban sprawl uses GIS as a tool in understanding the effects of urban sprawl on the natural
environment. GIS reveals spatial patterns of urban sprawl by measuring distances of new urban growth areas from town centers (Almeida, B. 2005).
In a Richmond, Almeida applied GIS capabilities such as the neighborhood statistics to analyze patterns of urban expansion in order to show the density and connectivity of patches of new growth between 1990 and 2001. To accomplish the target results Almeida implemented both qualitative (interviews with city planners and developers) and quantitative (neighborhood statistics) research methods.
It is necessary to apply more than one technique to understand how to measure an increase in urban growth or urban sprawl. In a study conducted in Kolkata, India; the built-up areas within each zone and for each date 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2010 have been calculated using the “entropy model” to get entropy values for the four dates, as it makes it easy to identify the sprawl patterns for each date in black and white
characterization (Bhatta, B. 2012).
Urban sprawl of the Ajmer city, in Rajasthan state of India has been studied over a period of 25 years (1977–2002), to extract the information related to sprawl, area of impervious surfaces and their spatial and temporal variability. Statistical classification approaches have been used for the classification of the remotely sensed images obtained from various sensors such Landsat MSS, TM, ETM+ and IRS LISS-III. Urban sprawl and its spatial and temporal characteristics were derived from the classified satellite images. The Shannon's entropy and landscape metrics were computed in terms of spatial phenomenon in order to quantify the urban form. Furthermore, multivariate statistical techniques were used to establish the relationship between the urban sprawl and its causative factors (Jat, M.K. et al (2007).
2.4. Application of GIS in Urban Sprawl Research
The complexity of urban systems makes it difficult to adequately address their changes using a model based on a single approach. Therefore, it is ideal to use a tool such as a GIS as part of research on urban sprawl because of its capacity to handle many
different types of spatial data (Almeida, B. 2005).
Feng, L. (2009) applied GIS and Remote Sensing in a study conducted in China by using the multi-temporal Landsat TM images to carry out the image classification.
Where the built-up areas of four different years were extracted from the classified images so that the dynamic changes and the characteristics of urban sprawl could be recognized, and then the built up area was regarded as one of indicators. Together with other different indicators, Feng constructed the indicator system to measure urban
sprawl. The calculation of indicators was carried out based on GIS, and the final results of analysis were visualized as maps.
Almeida, B. (2005) also applied GIS mapping and land cover change analysis,
neighborhood statistics, community surveying, key-informant interviews with planners and developers, and planning documents to measure sprawl. In a study conducted in Metropolitan Statistical Area of Richmond, Virginia in the United States.
In a study conducted in Bhubaneswar City, Orissa a very detailed classification system was adopted for mapping using large scale aerial photographs and high resolution satellite data. To detect changes that took place in 2000-2005. This study
demonstrates how satellite imagery can be displayed and manipulated and analyzed using digital techniques in a popular digital image processing software program Erdas Imagine 9.1 and GIS software ArcGis9.2.(Mishra, M. et.al 2006).
In a study of tracking urban sprawl by Estiri, H.(2012) an analytical explorative
investigation was conducted with the goal of developing and evaluating a methodology to measure and quantitatively identify urban sprawl. In this a spatial statistical technique was developed and applied to study spatial clustering or dispersion, through the
Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation analysis which is a technique to measure the co-
variation of juxtaposed map values of a given variable. Where it measures the observed similarity based on a simultaneous measurement of both observed locations and
observed values. Moran’s I is a tool is found in ArcGIS 10.
It is evident that even though there are number of techniques to analyze urban sprawl, GIS is still taking the lead as the analysis tool, with its different capabilities as presented above. The application of GIS in the study of urban sprawl is not only limited to the mentioned studies.
2.5. The Global trends in urban sprawl
As stated in Arellano, B& Roca, J. (2012), the second half of the twentieth century was undoubtedly the time when there has been a faster urban growth worldwide. The urban population has grown from 750 million in 1950 to 2860 million in 2000. It is further stated that the urban sprawl, has become a worldwide phenomenon, especially in the
developed world and its neighborhoods. The growing consumption of land, as a result of the extension of highway networks in urban areas, seems to have become unstoppable and affects virtually all the contemporary metropolis worldwide, Arellano, B& Roca, J.
(2012).
An example of high levels of urbanization and growth started long time ago, in the United States, suburbanization and sprawl started after World War II in many
developed industrial cities. With the development of urbanization at an unprecedented rate for many decades, many cities came up with lots of problems. The well
documented problems include environment deterioration, traffic congestion, air
pollution, crime, poverty, racial tension, poor schools, poor public services (Brunner, A.
n.d.). The trends towards new low density environments are also evident in the space consumed per person in the cities of Europe during the past 50 years which has more than doubled. In particular, over the past 20 years the extent of built-up areas in many western and eastern European countries has increased by 20 %(EEA Report No 10/2006).
“In developing countries like India, where the population is over one billion, one-sixth of the world's population, urban sprawl is taking its toll on natural resources” (Sudhira, H.S.
et al 2004;29). In a study conducted in India reveals the fast growing population and the rate of increase in population as mainly due to the large scale migration of people from rural areas and smaller towns to bigger cities in search of better employment
opportunities and good life style. The rapid population pressure had resulted to unplanned growth in the urban areas to accommodate migrant people which in turn result to urban sprawl (Rahman A. 2011).
As well as in Phillipines, rapid urbanization is seen as a result of the push from the rural areas where drought and low farm productivity are driving migrants to cities. The
concentration of economic development in few cities implies the population explosion that in turn severely examines the coping capacity of city governments. One of the visible outcomes of rapid urbanization has therefore been the persistence of formation of informal settlements (Ooi K.L.& Phua K.H. 2007).
Urban sprawl does not exclude Africa, as it is a worldwide occurrence. A study
conducted by Olujimi, J (2009) reveals rapid growth of the population of Nigeria, which grew from 30 million in 1952 to 140million in 2006. This shows a growth of 110 million in a period of 54 years. Olujimi associates the population growth with uncontrolled
urbanization that is caused by attractions in cities, in which the uncontrolled urbanization result to urban sprawl which one major feature of Nigerian cities.
In Adebayo, A.A (2012; 1) the UN-HABITAT (2006) “noted that the urban growth rate in Sub-Saharan Africa is almost 5 percent twice as high as in Latin America and Asia.
Associated with this trend the UN-HABITAT also highlights that Sub-Saharan Africa has the world’s largest proportion of urban population living in slums”. Adebayo further compared the conditions between Durban, South Africa and Nairobi, Kenya in which similarities were revealed that have their roots in the legacy of colonialism that left both cities racially segregated and deeply affected by socio-economic inequalities.
Particularly in the case of Durban Adebayo (2012;1) stated that “Black African racial group is still living in areas with limited socio-economic opportunity such as peripheral former apartheid townships and informal settlements due to dysfunctional and inefficient urban land markets among other reasons”.
2.6. The national trends in urban sprawl
According to the SA Department of Environmental Affairs (2007), the South African population increased from over 7.4 million to over 44.8 million between the years 1946 and 2001, with an average annual growth rate of about 3.3%. The 2001 census
settlements. Migration, urbanization and population growth are the major contributing factors to the urban sprawl experienced in South Africa. There is a growing trend in foreign immigration to South Africa, the number of applications for asylum and the
number of SADC born people becomes evident to the alarming increase in population in the country.
South African urbanization is outlined by Cox, KR. et.al (2005) as a resultant of migrant labor where people move from rural areas in search of employment opportunities to big cities. Turok, I. (2012), also highlights that in South Africa the pace of urbanization accelerated during the 1980s after many restrictions of apartheid were withdrawn, details on the apartheid laws are in chapter 1 legislation section 1.2.1. Turok further indicates the projections on South Africa’s urban population and growth rate of urban areas until 2050, where South Africa is expected to have nearly three quarters of its population living in urban areas. South Africa currently sitting at +52million total population with an estimated 54million in 2014 with a growth rate of 1.58% between 2012 and 2014 (Statistics South Africa 2014, 8).
Figure 4 below adopted from Gloeck, K.R (2012), reveals how the South African population living in urban areas had been increasing over years from 1945 to 2010.
“The dramatic migration of population from rural to urban areas in South Africa indicates that the process of urbanization has accelerated particularly since the 1990’s, a trend which can be directly attributed to the abolishment of Apartheid and in particular the related Group Areas Act”. This figure shows that in 1945 urbanized population was 37.7% and in 2010 urbanized population was sitting at 62%. According to Statistics South Africa census 2011 the urbanized population still sits at 62% with an estimated increase of 1.21%.
Fig:4 Five yearly incremental graph showing the percent of South Africa’s urbanized population(source: Gloeck, K.R. 2012)
Due to the policies and drastic urbanization, there have been a change in rural sector in South Africa; these changes include diminishing agricultural activities. These changes have resulted in a collapsing land economy that in turn has led to worker migration to urban areas. The principal reason for migration in South Africa is the search for income and employment and the search for better infrastructure including housing, schools, health facilities and access to transport. In some instances the results include urban sprawl on the outskirts of existing settlements (Cape Town Summit: 2013).
According to figure 4 the urbanized population of South Africa in 1945 was less than 50% of its population, this is the result of apartheid laws. The structures of cities were influenced by the apartheid racial segregation policies that were in place. Figure 5 shows the structure of South African apartheid cities, which has left a legacy of segregated settlement patterns and further has contributed to inequalities that are revealed by the existence of informal settlements as evidence of sprawling cities. As shown in the figure, African townships are more to the fringe closer to the industrial zone.
Fig 5: The Structure of Apartheid City: (source: Gloeck, K.R. 2012)
As South African cities are characterized by low-density urban sprawl, the expansion is dominant on edges both in formal and informal settlements”(Department of
Environmental Affairs (DEA), Republic of South Africa 2007). DEA also acknowledges the national increase in urbanization after the birth of democratic South Africa, between 1996 and 2001 by 2.4% has attributed to the population growth in South African cities.
It is critical to note that urban sprawl leads to pressure upon existing infrastructure and high costs for the development of new infrastructure. As it is highlighted on the definition and effects, urban sprawl is an outcome of migration, urbanization where people are longing for better infrastructure and employment opportunities. On the other hand the urban population has its own natural growth; all these people will therefore depend on the existing infrastructure or erect/ stay in informal settlements where there is no infrastructure at all. This is also noted by the Western Cape government on Urban development (2005), where it is stated that the main reasons for migration to urban areas are the perception of better life quality, improved infrastructure and more
employment opportunities. However, consequences of migration and urbanization include a demand for housing, proper sanitation, transportation facilities, electrification etc.
Furthermore, UN Habitat (2011) states that urban sprawl include overdependence on personal motorized transport coupled with a lack of alternatives, limited housing options and urban spaces that discourage pedestrian traffic. Most South African cities are an example of this. They are expanding primarily through development of new housing areas which, being located beyond the existing urban periphery, are relatively unplanned. As a result, the urban periphery consists of pockets of housing
developments that are isolated and separated from each other by trunk roads or open spaces.
Urbanization and population growth have contributed to the rapid expansion and sprawl of human settlements. As stated by DEA South African cities are characterized by low- density urban sprawl, where residential areas are apart from places of employment, shopping and public amenities, which forces people to commute to and from areas of employment. Urban development continues to increase the uneven nature of South African cities through the expansion of peripheral formal and informal settlements (particularly occupied by poor people). South African cities are fragmented into
separate cells of development interconnected by road systems, and isolated according to land use, population, and income levels. Newcomers to the cities occupy open land on the outskirts in hope of securing housing in the future, which does not always happen (SA Department of Environmental Affairs, 2007).
2.7. Urban Sprawl Trends in Gauteng Province
Gauteng is a Sotho name for gold; this province is a former Southern Transvaal which later was renamed to Pretoria-Witwatersrand and Vereeniging (PWV) state. Currently Gauteng is known for its richness in mineral deposit (gold) that was discovered in 1886.
employment opportunities, which as well influenced the rate of urbanization and the settlement patterns. Therefore, “the influx of people to the mining industry led to the establishment of a mining camp in 1886, which has evolved into a village, then town, city, metropolis of Johannesburg, and finally to become the Gauteng City-Region”
(Mubiwa B and Annegarn, H (2013;7)).
The imposition of government levied compulsory head taxes payable in cash forced South African to search for jobs, particularly in the mines and industries. Consequently, the influx of laborers increased the population growth of Witwatersrand. The
establishment of townships was directed by the colonial planning of segregation, separated and fragmented growth, where municipalities were required to racially separate the locations and prohibit Black South Africans from purchasing land on certain designated areas. The colonial/apartheid laws contributed a great deal to the current settlement patterns that exist. The proximity of low cost housing and informal settlements to the mine dumps ranges in less than a kilometer (Manungufala, T.E. et al (n.d.)). Also Mubiwa and Annegarn (2013) Ojelede (2011) stated that the proximity between mine dumps and settlements was initially 2 to 3 kilometers, however, the gap diminished due to both mine dumps and settlement expansions. Example of Reiger Park, Wadeville, Elsburg etc (Ekurhuleni) expanding around East Rand Proprietary Mines and Soweto (Diepkloof, Riverlea, Orlando) converging with Crown Gold Recoveries.
Gauteng is the smallest province of South Africa with an area size of 18 178 km2, however, according to the 2011 census Gauteng is home to a population of 12. 272263 million, by 2020 the population is estimated to be at 15 617 283 million. The 2011
census also reveals that the population density in this province is 675 people per square kilometer (GCRO, 2012). These findings suggest that Gauteng has the highest
population across the country, with a growth rate of 4.3% between1996-2001 and 2.7 % for 2001-2011 in comparison to South Africa which grew by 2.0% and 1.5% in those census years.
Table 1 and figure 6 below reflect the trend in population density in the province. The projected population density shows that the population is increasing. The continuous population growth vs the size (area) of Gauteng poses a risk that in future this province will run out of space. The levels of urban sprawl are very high as confirmed by the Statistician General Mr Phali Lehohla in July 2012 .He also acknowledged the dis- juncture between the policy intentions and how the RPD houses are constructed.
Population Density
1996 2001 2011 Projection to
2020 at current growth rate
Gauteng 419 516 675 859
South Africa 33 37 42 48
Table 1: population density Gauteng vs National (South Africa): source GCRO
Fig 6: Population Density Gauteng vs National (South Africa): source GCRO Horn A (2009), approached the urban growth issue through urban growth management approach called “Gauteng Urban Edge” that the Gauteng Province government
implemented as urban management measure between 2001and 2002. Horn studied the implementation of this approach in Gauteng province which focused on containing
held the promise of increased accessibility to the urban opportunities, greater viability of public transport as well as environmental advantages. The implementation of this
approach was on the affected Gauteng Municipalities of Johannesburg, Tshwane and Ekurhuleni. From this study it is clear that something needs to be done to control/
manage the urban areas in South Africa to avoid the unplanned sprawl.
From the views tabled above urban sprawl exists in Gauteng, this phenomena is
threatening the province and its metropolitan municipalities. Consequently the existence of urban sprawl in this province puts pressure on the resources (including infrastructure) and affects service delivery tremendously.
2.8. Urban sprawl effects
The above sections indicated some of the reasons for people flock into urban areas and some relative causes of urban sprawl; such as employment opportunities, better
standards of living, lack of proper planning and policies, affordable land outside, government developmental policies etc. Generally, the effects of urban sprawl are not exclusively related to infrastructure there is a wide range of effects from environmental and social implications, the relationship between infrastructure cost and urban form.
According to Stefan S and Stefan F (2010), many studies provided evidence ‘that urban land use patterns and the costs for providing communities with services such as roads, water supply, sewer disposal, and schools are closely interlinked’. Urban sprawl is characterized by low density developments, large outward expansions, and leapfrog development. The growth patterns of a sprawling urban area are likely to produce much higher infrastructure expenditures compared to compact urban forms. This is due to the fact that patterns such as scattered leap frog developments creates a challenge in which service infrastructure becomes expensive as a result of open spaces (stretches of land) and mine dumps between the built up areas that are skipped to provide services on the other side of such features.
Infrastructure is the key engine for the development of the communities and better dignified standard of living for communities. Therefore urban sprawl negatively affects social and economic conditions of communities in several ways as mentioned by Stefan S and Stefan F (2010) such as: increased community costs for maintaining roads, school bus routes, sewers and other services needed when business and residences are spread-out. As well as increased costs and difficulty of providing public
transportation. It has been indicated that providing public infrastructure and services for sprawling, low density subdivisions costs significantly more that providing for the same number of houses in urban centers.
Brunner, A. (n.d.) identifies environmental problems such as pollution that emanate from transportation as a result of urban sprawl, when stating that “urban sprawl directly
impacts traffic congestion, high oil consumption and many other transportation issues”.
Therefore it is evident that urban sprawl has a negative impact on both air quality and public health which affect human conditions. The Study on urban sprawl in India, depict urban sprawl as a cause of loss in productive land, open green spaces, loss of surface water bodies and depletion of ground water (Rahman A. 2011). Ewing, R. et al (2002) finds poor accessibility as a common denominator of sprawl, where consequences are transport dominance by motor vehicle, great variance in local fiscal capabilities and reliance in filtering low income housing.
Ooi G.L. & Phua K.H. (2007), noted that cities in developing countries are faced with rapid urbanization, consequently the authorities faced with rapid development lack the capacity to cope with diverse demands for infrastructure provision to meet the economic and social needs. The study conducted by Z Simpson et al (n.d.) also exposes the impact that urban sprawl has on transportation networks in Gauteng province of South Africa. In which poor people live on the periphery and “become trapped there due to the high cost of transport and often cannot take on low paying work as it would cost more to get to work than what they would earn. They are then forced to remain living on the periphery in conditions of abject poverty” Simpson Z et al (n.d; 15).
