Children in an Information Age (Overview of the Issues)

NOT FOR QUOTATION WITHOUT PERMISSION

OF TKE

AUTHOR

CHILDREN IN

AN

1NH)RMATION AGE

(CMZlMEU

OF THE ISSUES)

Tibor Vasko

March 1984

WP-84-18

Prepared for a Task Force Meeting on Children and Computers to be held in Albena, Bulgaria on 3-4 May, 1984

Wmkilzg m e r s are interim reports on work of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and have received only Limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute or of its National Member Organiza- tions.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR

APPLIED

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 2361 Laxenburg, Austria

The comments and suggestions given by Prof. Dennis Meadows to an earlier version of this paper are gratefully acknowledged.

I

should like to express my sincere gratitude to Ed Lijser for his invaluable help with the bibliography.

CONTENTS

POUTiCAL AND

SOCIAZ. INKUKNCES

ECONOMIC AND TW=HNOU]GICAL INFLUENCES EDUCATIONAL P-S

SOHE POLICY RgSPONSES

United

States of

America Japan

Rance Mtain

Other W e a t European Countries Australia and N e w

Zealand

Soviet

Union and Socialist Countries

ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL OFGAMZATIONS

SOYE THOUGHTS ON IIASA'S

^POTENTIAL ROLe

CHILD=

IN AN r n R Y A T I 0 N AGX

(Ovexview

of

the

Issues)

'Kbor Vasko

The process of education is as old as the human race. All through history this process has become increasingly formalized and socialized (one mile- stone being, for example, the introduction of compulsory education). These steps made the responsibility of education for the future of the whole society (a nation) more explicit. In spite of the fact that this responsibility has not been questioned for centuries, there a r e many very recent documents moni- toring the disquieting state of the educational process (A Nation a t Risk, 1903) and contemplating elaborate measures for its improvement (Pravda, January 4, 1984) to meet the challenges of the future or use the possibilities offered by new technology (Masuda 1972, 1900). These problems seem to be so important that the whole concept of t h e future in education has be analyzed (Toffler 1974).

Because of all this. education is a n inherent part of development stra- tegies in most countries, industrially developed or developing. Individual institutions (ministries) are designing policies aiming to influence the behavior of individual actors in education in the desired direction. The effi- ciency of individual measures taken in achieving the selected objectives is dif- ficult to predict, because processes studied by several different disciplines are interacting. Here the systems approach seems to be a well suited methodol- ogy. This fact also makes the problem of children and computers an attrac- tive potential topic for study

at IIASA.

However, a closer look at the issues is necessary before more concrete suggestions can be prepared.

SOME

SEMANTICS

Wide interest evoked by the intricacies of computer-based education has brought many disciplines t o the scene. Because t h e s e disciplines have their own semantics and definitions, there is a somewhat polluted terminology. For further exploration, i t may be useful to s t r u c t u r e the issue in t h e following way (Valcke 1982):

C o m p u t e r Aided E d u c a t i o n (CAE) concerns:

-

learning a b o u t t h e computer, e.g., computer literacy, data process- ing, computer science;

--

^learning t h ~ o u g h the computer. e.g., drill and practice, diagnostic testing, tutorial programs;

-

_{learning w i t h} t h e computer, e.g., simulations and games, problem solving, creative activities.

These activities will soon be signihcantly enhanced by t h e results of artificial intelligence research a n d should lead t o the creation of Intelligent Computer- Aided Education (ICAE). One expects, from t h e use of ICAE systems t h a t t h e student could use natural language and voice commands a n d with t h e results of research in cognitive psychology (directed a t modeling human thought and problem solving behavior) these systems may adjust to different learning styles and t o a student's prior knowledge (Douglass 1983).

In the literature, Computer Managed Education is also distinguished, which refers t o applications when a computer:

--

makes a n d analyzes a test for diagnostic o r examination purposes;

-

routes the student on the basis of former test result;

--

stores, interprets, and updates classroom data;

-

reports on progress t o t h e persons concerned.

These education computer systems are implemented on different technical bases. We can distinguish:

-

time-shared central computers;

-

local minicomputers;

--

networks of mini/microcomputers;

-

independent personal computers, including programmable calcula- tors.

A significant role in t h e efficiency of the computer systems is played by t h e necessary accompanying software. Software for use i n educational systems

has

to m e e t some specific requirements dictated by pedagogical and psycho- logical issues.

SOURCES

OF INCREASED INTEREST IN CBE

One long-term source of growing interest in

CBE

is created by increasing scientific and technical development. It is often argued t h a t more than 90% of all the scientists who ever lived on this e a r t h are still alive! Similar forecasts a r e expressed for t h e future; for example, i t has been pointed out (David, Willi- ams 1979) t h a t for a child born in 1979, therefore celebrating his 50th birth- day in 2029. 97% of all man's acquired knowledge will have been discovered in his or h e r lifetime. The consequences of this fact for education-acquired knowledge a r e said t o be t h a t most of this acquired knowledge will be useless, some worthless and some even incorrect. The logical response t o this chal- lenge. which would exist even without the emergence of computers in educa- tion, is t o change t h e c h a r a c t e r of education from the focus on knowledge con- t e n t t o a focus on t h e process of learning. The question is how t o incorporate technology into t h e educational process in order to enhance t h e capability of an individual's mind t o remain fertile, productive, and creative as long as pos- sible without hitting t h e barrier presented by the psychologically and physio- logically sustainable load.

Pursuing responses t o this basic challenge has caused scientists and edu- cators t o branch into several spheres of interest t o decision makers and policy designers.

POUTICAL AND

SOCIAL

INFLUENCES

The necessity of educating an ever-increasing population opens up t h e question of efficiency, costs, a n d overall policy for educational processes.

Conflicts between t h e s e issues c a n easily emerge. Disparities in views, interests, and needs of teachers, parents, administrators, politicians, and technicians, not t o mention the interests of students themselves, a r e already recognized

The individual levels of policy majing generate different signals toward education. Educational requirements deduced from t h e long-term strategy of development of a particular country could be included in this category of influences. One of t h e most specific is t h e "Information Society" strategy of Japan described elsewhere (Masuda 1972. 1980) containing experimental pro- jects in education.

A more r e c e n t message from the U S President's Commission on Excel- lence in Education is contained in t h e title of its report "A Nation a t Risk'. It cites t h e idea of an analyst (Paul Copperman) that

"Each generation of America h a s oustripped its parents in education, in literacy, a n d in economic attainment. For the first time in t h e history of our country, t h e educational skills of one generation will not surpass, will not equal, will not even approach, those of t h e i r parents."

They recommend many measures (divided into five groups) t o a t t a i n excel- lence in education.

This year (Pravda, January 4, 1984) a major policy paper was presented in the USSR on "Basic reform directions of general and professional schools" ini- tiated by t h e Central Committee of CPSU. The paper states t h a t t h e grandoise tasks of the e n d of the century and at t h e beginning of the next will be solved by those who a r e sitting behind school desks today. Among many recommen- dations intended t o improve the efficiency of education we can mention t h e task to

"equip the students with the knowledge and habits to use modern computer technology, t o secure wide applications of computers in t h e educational process. t o build for this purpose special school and interschool cabinets."

The political and social pressures a r e often oriented t o increase effi- ciency through cost reduction measures. There a r e indications t h a t t h e intro- duction of computers in education does not always lead t o real cost savings (Rushby 1978). The evaluation of computer-based educ-ation is not an easy process when one strives t o assess t h e effectiveness and efficiency of acquir- ing specific skills (Venezky 1983).

The political and social influences have also global dimensions. These influences have led, for example, to t h e creation of the World Center for Microelectronics and Human Resources based in Paris. This was where one of the most important experiments took place: t h a t of applying computers t o education in a developing country -- in this case Dakar (Senegal). The idea behind this experiment was t h a t t h e time had come when applying computers to various cultures may bring benefits to both donors and acceptors of tech- nology. Numerous critiques and questionings of this idea exist (Dray a n d Menosky 1983).

ECONOKIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

The diffusion of computers into t h e learning process on all levels of t h e educational system seems t o follow a l l the problems known from t h e introduc- tion of computers to other areas; for example, into management organiza- tions. In addition, however it has i t s own peculiar problems. So one can iden- tify for example:

--

both the market pull and technology push effects, t h e l a t t e r still being predominant;

--

the problem t h a t designers and manufacturers have in selecting between special custom-made, and t h e more universal mass- produced. equipment;

the lag of software development behind the hardware availability.

This is valid for high level simple languages (BASIC. COMAL, etc.) or for more sophisticated languages such as

LOGO

(with graphics) now implemented in t r u n c a t e d form even on microcomputers, but also for special educational programs for teaching several subjects (languages, mathematics, physics, etc.). Not only is the program's efficiency important (as viewed from t h e point of optimal use of hardware capabilties), but also pedagogical viewpoints should be taken into consideration i f learning is t o be efficient.

Previously the market-pull was not sufficient t o a t t r a c t enough resources for software development. The situation now seems to be changing. The Creative Strategies International in a r e c e n t report (IEEE Spectrum, November 1983, p.126) predicted that the US educational software industry would grow 48% annually between now and 1987. Predictions suggest that classroom computers may be a focus of software development in the future even if present software development represents only 15% of classroom com- puter use.

Teachers suggest that most of t h e small systems offered for education have been developed in computer laboratories without adequate input from pedagogs, so t h e solution is too technology-bound. This is also the equivalent of quite a common situation in other computer applications where the com- puter attracts the bigger share of attention a n d money, while future expan- sion and integration of the system a r e more often overlooked.

Obviously, t h e r e will be a growing specialization of systems from those for the elementary school environment where one should take into account t h e absence of the children's reading ability ( a problem of interaction) t o content-centered CBS for the university environment. The optimal represen- tatives of appropriate systems will have t o be developed on a multidisciplinary basis and t o involve: technicians, teachers, educators, psychologists, and administrators.

Educational pressures seem t o be t h e least significant, but they may well be t h e key to t h e appropriate diffusion of computer-based education. The edu- cational potential of computers has not been fully identified, and much of t h e focus until now has been on the possible quantitative gains: higher cost- effectiveness of t h e educational process with computers, more effective use of time, etc. This focus may be t h e result of economic and technological forces in action.

Important qualitative impacts of computer-based systems can also be identified. Arnong t h e most frequently mentioned are:

--

The possibility to "tailor-make" instructional procedures in order t o respond t o individual learning types. Until now much of this has been achieved by using programmed instruction paradigms based on past responses of the student, but alternatives accommodating indi- vidual differences are somewhat rigid. One can expect fundamental improvement when results of artificial intelligence research a r e applied where knowledge representation, processing, and inference are studied. These results will help in modeling the thought process and the process of learning.

--

Cornputer-based education is adaptable t o t h e individual student's speed of learning (self-paced learning systems).

--

_CBE can provide a direct feedback on the s t a t e of the learning pro- cess which is important information for t h e teacher.

Many of t h e s e benefits a r e also challenged in scientific literature. There a r e prestigious studies indicating t h a t computer use has no overall significant effect on s t u d e n t achievements. There seems to be no valid methodology of research delivering comparable and reproducible results. As a solution a model-based application of CBE systems is suggested (Valcke 1982). This model (theory) should give insight into t h e education and learning process and should be built by a n interdisciplinary t e a m of scientists, teachers, administrators, and policy-makers.

There is also a n abundance of papers reporting surprising results which have been achieved on exposing young children t o various kinds of computer systems. The main reason for these results is t h e excellent imagination some computer experiments develop in children. This helps t h e m comprehend diffi- cult issues with ease. How t o use this natural "resource" children have for acquiring facts, "computer literacy", a n d t o enhance t h e whole education pro- cess is not entirely known.

SOME POLICY

RESPONSES

Education is always resonsible f o r t h e ability of t h e future society and is, therefore, part of overall policy supportng economic and social development. A fragmented overview of some policy responses of different countries (Ham- mond 1983) is outlined in t h e following paragraphs.

United

States of

America

In t h e USA pioneering efforts in computer applications have been developed a n d a c l e a r vision of applying computers t o education have been pursued. Numerous studies supported by the government (US Office of Educa- tion, National Science Foundation) a n d several foundations (Exxon, Sloan) have tried t o m a k e t h i s vision a reality.

A t t h e s a m e t i m e opposing views were voiced arguing t h a t computers a r e expensive gadgets which do not increase t h e quality of education. What is more, rigidly p r o g r a m m e d machines m a y lead t o idiosyncracies a n d cause t e a c h e r s to select only those problems which c a n be comfortably taught by computers.

There a r e excellent analytical studies depicting t h e real impact of com- p u t e r based education a t college level in t h e USA (Kulik, Kulik, Cohen 1980).

In 1983 i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e number of microcomputers in American schools was over 100,000, which could be taken a s an indication t h a t virtually every school in t h e USA had a microcomputer (in t h e US t h e r e a r e 83.334 pub- lic a n d 21.749 private schools. a n d 3.453 colleges). However t h e distribution of computers i n schools i s not uniform all over t h e country. In spite of this n u m b e r of computers t h e r e is no overall policy of computer applications, though t h e r e a r e some m e a s u r e s taken to enhance t h e computerization of schools (for example, 25% t a x write-off is available for equipment supplied t o colleges).

The distribution of computers depends on individual states. For example, in Minnesota t h e r e is one computer for every 50 children. There a r e s t a t e s where only 50% of t h e schools have computers. In some cities t h e schools a r e equipped by local microcomputer producers. The situation is different for university education, where some universities already require t h a t a student owns a microcomputer and others a r e t o follow soon. Some of t h e s e universi- ties expect t o interconnect microcomputers into networks (Bereiter 1983).

However, in general, affluent children in t h e US find more home support for microcomputers than in many other countries.

Japan

Applying computers to education i s a p a r t of national strategy in Japan, denoted by t h e t e r m "Information Society" (Masuda 1972). P a r t of this project was a Computer-Oriented Education in an Experimental School District (cost

$266 million). This plan conceived of an experimental school district conduct- ing computer-oriented education i n pre-sc hool, kindergarten. primary school, junior and senior high schools, university playing a central role. The plan includes rationalization of school office work, an individual education gui- dance system, computer-oriented education, and a n educational science research center. The project planned t o help solve problems concerning future computer-oriented education, measuring t h e educational effect of t h e intelligence network, planning a standard education system. a n d developing a new individual educational system.

I t

was conceived a s an educational experi- ment, permitting objective scientific data collection and analysis of differ- ences between t h e computer-oriented, private instruction, problem-solving type of educational system and t h e contemporary group uniform education system.

In t h e early stages, a computer-aided instruction (CAI) system model classroom has been t e s t e d in primary schools under the direction Tsukuba University; training programs in computer operation and programming were begun in public commercial high schools. But Japanese children a r e already in contact with computers when they a t t e n d kindergartens, which t h e y attend until they reach t h e age of five (in Japan there a r e 14,893 kindergartens).

From five until twelve years of age they a t t e n d elementary schools (amount- ing t o 24,945). This is followed by lower secondary schools (10,780) and t h e n by upper secondary schools. Ninety percent of the population continue their education until t h e age of 18. In Japan the state-run schooling follows a national curriculum and private schools provide educaton t o 7% of t h e popula- tion.

It is claimed t h a t no o t h e r nation's children devote so much time to com- puters a s Japanese children. However, some critical comments have pointed out t h a t education in Japan has been too application oriented, n o t fostering creative, logical, and philosophical thinking. To remedy this is one of t h e tasks of t h e new, almost legendary, fifth generation computer project in Japan.

R.ance

The French National Experiment in Educational Computing s t a r t e d in October 1970 but initially focused on secondary education. France is also fol- lowing a national curriculum, which has t h e advantage of a coordinated approach with related education of teachers. One of t h e r e c e n t schemes assumes 10.000 computers in lycees. The standard of t h e f u t u r e is eight com- puters and a p r i n t e r in e a c h classroom.

Britain

In Britain a sustained effort began in 1973 with a modest budget of E mil- lion and with t h e title National Development Programme in Computer-Assisted Learning. In 1981 a new s c h e m e

(a

million) was s t a r t e d t o persuade every secondary school t o buy a microcomputer. This scheme seems to have been a success: in t h e first year 80% of state-run secondary schools bought a micro- computer (with a 50% subsidy from t h e government). In 1982 a similar scheme (estimated t o cost fSl million) was focused on 27,000 primary schools.

Other West European Countries

There a r e s c h e m e s for model schools supported by local governments in t h e

FRG.

Denmark developed i t s own computer and language (COMAL 80) for imple- mentation into school systems.

Ireland donates a n 80% subsidy t o 834 secondary schools t o acquire a n Irish-built computer.

Australia and N e w

Zealand

Similar subsidy s c h e m e s a r e in effect in these countries. In Australia t h e r e is 50% subsidy ( u p t o t h e s u m of $1,000).

In New Zealand a "computer" war even s t a r t e d among t h e manufacturers when foreign m a n u f a c t u r e r s wanted t o eliminate domestic competition ( t h e Poly microcomputer) by decreasing t h e prices. The New Zealand government responded by introducing a customs duty in Apple computers (NZ$880).

Soviet Union

and Socialist

Countries

Computers were introduced t o schools very early on, starting a t univer- sity level in t h e early 1950s (first generation computers). Later secondary schools also received computers, generally a minicomputer. At t h e same time t h e curriculum has been changed, accommodating several courses of pro- gramming a n d computer science on different levels. New specializations have also been introduced.

In t h e mid-1970s m o r e elaborate schemes were worked out. To illustrate t h e point. we c a n describe t h e s c h e m e approved by t h e Ministry of Higher Edu- cation

of

t h e USSR dated January 12, 1978

--

t h e so-called "Automated Teach- ing Systems". The s c h e m e is based on two stages. The first ( u p t o 1982) aims:

--

to develop computer systems custom-made for schools;

-- to s t a r t research and development into t h e psychological a n d didac- tic issues raised by t h e application of such systems;

-- to work out a methodology for developing algorithmic and s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e s of teaching courses and appropriate monitoring systems.

Among t h e first a r e some aspects of physics, chemistry, m a t h e m a t - ics, a n d programming languages;

--

to develop languages for teaching, user control languages, a n d interactive (dialog) programming languages.

The second stage counts with interconnecting t h e individual functional systems into a n integrated network.

ROLE OF WIYXNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

International organizations a r e also active in exploring t h e challenge of computer applications t o education. Among t h e m o s t prestigious a r e t h e activities of UNESCO through t h e project "Joint Studies on Education".

Much i n t e r e s t was raised by t h e World Center for Microelectronics a n d Human Resources in Paris, with world renowned scientists on t h e staff (Sey- m o u r Papert. Nickolas Negroponte). In spite of t h e fact t h a t t h e gentle and important ideas which led t o i t s creation lost nothing of their topicality from r e c e n t developments, one h a s t h e impression t h a t somehow t h e Center itself may have r e a c h e d a point of "diminishing returns" due t o local and some specific problems.

SOME THOUGHTS ON

IIASA'S

POTENTIAL ROLE

From a very preliminary scan of t h e issues connected with t h e penetra- tion of computers into t h e educational process one could conclude t h a t prob- lems are:

--

interdisciplinary;

--

with a strong social and cultural context; and because of this it s e e m s t o be a potential topic for East-West joint studies t o be appropriately performed

at

IIASA;

--

embedded in modern technology;

--

topical and p a r t of economic and social strategies of national development;

--

related t o national and regional policies.

One could say t h a t t h e picture is still unclear a t best, with m a n y experi- m e n t s running, but relatively few producing usable results for consistent pol- icy, especially when longer t e r m perspectives a r e required.

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e volatile a n d fast-changing situation only extends t h e s p e c t r u m of differing views on t h e s a m e problem. A r e c e n t US National Science Foundation Study "Educating America for t h e 21st Century" p u t s edu- cation among t h e national goals a n d adds t h a t "Almost any s t a t e m e n t m a d e today will, therefore, be obsolete in a few years, if not months". But t h e r e a r e also dissenting views of e m i n e n t specialists. A study carried o u t for t h e Carne- gie Endowment for t h e Advancement of Teaching "High School, A Report on Secondary Education in America" led by E.L. Boyer, f o r m e r US Commissioner of Education, for example, s t a t e s t h a t : "Technology revolutions h a v e failed t o t o u c h t h e schools largely b e c a u s e p u r c h a s e s frequently have p r e c e d e d plan- ning".

These illustrations also show where t h e p r e s e n t focus in t h i s field lies.

The longer t e r m impact studies hardly left t h e speculative stage.

From t h e above one c a n s t a t e for f u r t h e r discussion s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y goals for a n IlASA project:

(1) P r e p a r e interactively with collaborating institutions a state-of-the- art r e p o r t on c o m p u t e r based education, scanning n o t only t h e issues b u t also t h e active projects in individual c o u n t r i e s a n d identi- fying t h e m a i n a c t o r s ;

(2) Identify a framework for a s t u d y on t h e long-term implications of c o m p u t e r s in education. For t h i s some supporting "sub-studies" m a y be useful, for example on t h e development of functional p r o p e r t i e s of f u t u r e s y s t e m s f r o m a n educational point of view, on t h e potential of artificial intelligence r e s e a r c h , social a n d psychological implica- tions, e t c .

(3) Policy issues c o n n e c t e d with computer-based e d u c a t i o n with a n a s s e s s m e n t of p a s t policies a n d some illustrative c a s e studies.

(4) Modeling efforts m a d e elsewhere a n d t h e i r potential for policy advice.

From p r e s e n t knowledge i t s e e m s reasonable t o work sequentially on pro- jects 1-4 a n d eventually define m o r e precisely e a c h step.

I t s e e m s futile t o elaborate m o r e on t h i s subject now when t h e i n t e r e s t of potential collaborating i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d IIASA NMOS a r e only v e r y superficially known. It is c e r t a i n t h a t m o r e involvement with t h e m would bring m u c h - needed i n p u t a n d guidance for m o r e detailed planning steps. This could be accomplished a t t h e forthcoming meeting on May 3-4. 1984 i n Albena. n e a r Varna, i n Bulgaria.

REFERENCES

Bereiter. S. 1983: The Personal Computer Invades Higher Education. IEEE S p e c t r u m , June, p.59-61.

David, B.A..

R.L

Williams 1979: Computer Technology a n d t h e Education of Tomorrow's Children. In: Proceedings of Trends a n d Applications, pp.07-92.

Douglass, J.R. 1983: Needs a n d Uses. IEEE Spectrum, November, p.41-45.

Dray, J., J . k Menosky 1983: Computers: A Special Report. Technology Review, Vo1.86, No.4, May/June, p. 12-16.

Hammond. R. 1983: Computers a n d Your Child. London: Century Publishing.

Masuda, Y. 1972: A New Development Stage of t h e Information Revolution.

OECD Informatics Studies, No. 8. Applications of

Computer/Telecommunications Systems. Proceedings of t h e OECD Seminar, November 13-15, 1972, Paris.

Masuda, Y. 1980: The Information Society as Post-Industrial Society. Tokyo:

Institute for Information Society.

Pravda, 1984: Project of t h e Central Committee (CC) of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e Soviet Union (CPSU): Basic Reform Directions of General a n d Profes- sional Schools. January 4. p.1-2. (in Russian).

Rushby, N.J., E.B. James, J.S.A. Anderson 1978: A Three-Dimensional View of Computer-Based Learning i n Continental Europe. In: Programmed Learning a n d Educational Technology, 15, 2, 152-161.

Toffler. A. (ed.) 1974: Learning for Tomorrow. The Role of t h e Future in Educa- tion. Vintage Books, A Division of Random House/New York

Valcke,

M.

1982: Computer-Based Learning Systems a t t h e Elementary School.

Scientia Paedagogica Experimentalis, Vol. 19, pp. 130-143.

Venezky. R.L. 1983: Evaluating Computer-Assisted Instruction on Its Own Terms. In: Classroom Computers and Cognitive Science,

kc.

Wilkinson (ed.).

New York: Academic Press. p.31-49.

A Nation a t Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. The National Com- mission on Excellence i n Education. Communication of t h e ACM, 1983, Vo1.25, No.7. 467-478.