WOMEN AND SOCIETY
IN BHAVABHÜTI'S UTTARARÄMACARITAMi
By S. N. Misra, Heidelberg
The hterature reflects and preserves the images of contemporary ideals
and realities of the society in which the poet, writer or dramatist lives, with
which he is conversant. He is an integral part of his time-space-span,
therefore, he projects an image of his contemporary society, existing in a
geographical expanse thoroughly known to him. This picture is a subjective
image - a product of his reaction to and interaction of this society on him,
often unconsciously projects in his works. Thus the factors of time, region
and personality of the poet or dramatist circumscribe the picture of the
society reflected in literature.
These subjective limitations necessitate a brief mention of these factors
while dealing with the Uttararämacaritam of Bhavabhuti. Bhavabhuti has
been placed between 680-760 AD and his literary activity has been assigned
to the and the 2"* quarters of the 8*'' cent. AD. His ancestors resided in a
town called Padmapma in Dakshinäpatha, usually located in Vidarlha or
Berar*, generally identified with Padmävati*, Mirashi*, however, identifies it
with a village called Padampur in Bhandara destrict of Maharashtra. The
dramas written by Bhavabhuti were staged at the temple festivals of
Kälapriyanätha or Kälaprivänatha during Bhavabhüti's life time. This
temple has been located at Padmapura, Ujjayini und Kälpi by different
scholars*. Bhavabhuti was, in all probability a Däkshinätya Brähmana
(Dravida) conversant with the whole of South India right upto Kerala*. He
is introduced by the Sutradhära, as "There is a worthy descendant of
Kaäyapa's lineage, having the title of Srikantha by way of distinction, versed
in the sciences of Grammar, logic and Mimämsä, Bhavabhuti by name and
son of a woman who was sprung from Jätükarya gotra. Whom, a Brähmana,
this goddess of speech follows like an obedient wife'.
1 Kane, P.V., Uttararämacaritam, Introduction, p. 25 (IV Edition).
2 ibid., p. 6-8.
8 ibid.
* MiEASHi, V.V., Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XI pp. 287-299.
^ MiBASHi, V.V., Studies in Indology. Vol. I pp. 35-42; Kane, P.V., ibid. pp.
11-21.
« Kane, P.V., ibid., pp. 26-27.
' ibid., p. 4- ,Asti khalu tatrabhavänkasyapa ; Srikantapadalänchanah padavä-
kyapramänagyo Bhavabhütirnäma Jatükarniputrah. Yam Brähmanamiyam De¬
vi Vägvaiyevänucartate.'
378 S. N. MiSBA
Karunarasa being the main emotional strain of Uttararämacaritam, the
subjective bias of Bhavabhüti's personality is quite obvious.
The basis of the story of the Uttararämacaritam is the Uttarakända of the
Rämiyana - which itself is an interpolation which came to be accepted as a
part of the Rämäyana. Bhavabhuti has changed this story of the Uttarakän¬
da of the Rämäyana and has introduced many new elements. These new
elements should bc taken to reflect the contemporary regional society of
Bhavabhuti as subjectively perceived by him. The story of Uttararämacari¬
tam revolves around Sitä - her desertion by Räma due to public scandal and
her subsequent re-union with Räma. There are 16 male and 11 female,
characteres, of these 8 males and 7 females play the major role. Räma is the
hero and Sitä is the heroine of this drama. Women characters play a very
active role in shaping the story. Most of these women characters belong to
the upper strata of the society.
Adoption of girls: It is stated in the first act of the drama that king
Daäaratha had a daughter named Öäntä, whom he gave in adoption to king
Romapäda (Apatyakrtikäm räjile Romapädäya yäm dadau)* Rsyaärnga,
the son of Vibhändaka espoused her*. This reference reveals the practice of
adoption of girls.
Importance of male progeny: Great importance was given to male progeny.
Vasistha sent the following blessings to Sitä, through Astävakra from the
Äärama of Rsyaärnnga - "Only be a mother of heroes" (Kevalam viraprasa- vä bhüyäh)'*. Rsyaärninga sent the following blessings to her : "I shall behold thee, longlived one, with a son on thy lap" (Tatputrapürnotsangä-
mayusmatim drakshyäm iti)''. In the Act VII Gangä and Prthivi console
Sitä thus: "Take heart, blessed one, thou art highly favoured with good
fortune, o princess of Videha, within the water thou hast given birth to two
sons, who shall uphold the lineage of Raghus".
Samäävasihi Kalyäni distyä Vaidehi vardhase
Antarjale prasütäsi Raghuvamäadharau sutau'*.
Even fainting Sitä expresses her satisfaction by saying "Fortunately have I
given birth to two sons" (Distyä därakau prasütäsmi)'*.
Child marriage : Prthivi refuses to the fact that when Räma took Sitä's hand
in his hand in matrimony he was only a boy'*. Seeing the paintings of his life-
' Uttararämacaritam, f. 6. •
» ibid.
'» ibid., p. 9.
" ibid.
" ibid., p. 145.
" ibid.
'* ibid., p. 147.
Woman and Society in Bhavabhutis Uttararämacaritam 379
events, Räma recollects. "This Jänaki too then, was a Child, having a face
the expression of which was engaging by reason of her bud-like teeth, not
very dense, some having fallen at intervals."'* From this, the prevalence of
child marriage in the society known to Bhavabhüti can be infered.
Female education and co-education: In the second Act of the drama we
come accross a female ascetic (täpasi) Ätreyl. She was a student of Välmiki,
and had studied along with other male students including Kuäa and Lava.
As these two were very intelligent, she Was not able to keep pace with them.
She tells VäsantI that "There is no possibility of persons like me studying
with these two possessing a very brilliant intellect and a strong memory (Na
hyetäbhyämati. pradiptaprajnämedhäbhyämasmadädeh sahädhyayanayo-
go asti)."
VäsantI asks the purpose of her entering the forest of Dandaka, she replies :
,,In this tract there dwell many who know the Omkära, of whom Agastya is
the chief ; in order to learn from them the knowledge of Vedänta, I wander
here having left the side of Välmiki.""
Of all the female characters, four - Sitä, Kausalyä, Vidyädharl and
Pratihäri (female doorkeeper) speak Präkrta,'* while seven viz goddesses
Gangä, Prthivi, VäsantI, Tarmasä, Muralä and Arundhati (Vasisthas wife)
and the female ascetic Ätreyl speak Samskrta.'* Divine characters left
apart, samskrta education was obviously limited among the Brähmana
ladies.
Ladies visiting and meeting their kins : When Rsvaärnnga commenced the
performance of a long sacrifice, he invited his mother-in-laws i. e. Daäaratha's
queens or Rama's mothers. Räma's mothers headed by Vasistha and preceded
by Arundhati went to the hermitage of their son-in-law**.
Later on they come to the Äörama of Välmiki, Janaka also comes there. At
the advice of Casistha, Arundhati takes Kausalya to Janaka*'.
Social calumny, fire-ordeal and desertion: In the very first Act of the
drama, Sütradhära says: "Men are wicked as regards the chastity of women
and speech,"** at this the actor emphasises - "you should say very wicked.
'* ibid., p. 14.
'« ibid., p. 35.
" ibid., p. 33, Asminnagastyapramukäh pradeÄe Bhüyans udgithavido vaaanti.
Tebhyodhigantum nigamäntavidyäm Välmikipärävädih paryatämi.
1* ibid., Act. I & IV.
'» ibid., Acts II, III, VII.
2» ibid., p. 6.
*' ibid., Act. IV.
** ibid., p. 6 sarvathä vyavahartavyam kuto hyavacanivatä,
yathä strinäm tathä vacäm sadhutvo durjano janah.
380 S. N. MlSBA
For men speak evil of the queen, the daughter of Videha's prince. (Her)
Residence in the house of the demon is the root (of the scandal) but as
regards her fire-ordeal there is distrust."**
This scandal mongering, maligning, and mudslinging by the people of the
city and countryside (Paurajänapadäh) was so vicious that the new king
Räma had to appease these people by deserting - rather banishing Sitä who
was then in advanced stage of pregnancy, of whose chastity and innocence
Räma was convinced and who had undergone the humiliation of finordeaP*.
So helpless was the ideal Hindu king Räma against social calumny ! Around
the pathos of this hopeless and helpless situation revolves the story of the
Uttararämacaritam. When sociel calumny could be so disasterous for a king
- how much more so would it have been in cases of common men and women
- how defenceless were the people against such maligning. Since it arrests the
attention of Bhavabhuti to such an extent - it can be safely surmised that
such things must have been too well-known, if not too often happening in
the society which Bhavabhuti knew.
Defenceless woman and her last resorts: Sitä, while in banishment uses the
phrase "Mäm mandabhäginim" (my wretched or unlucky self) so many
times in the Acts III and VII that it appears like a stockphrase. Even
Kausalya uses this phrase**. Left so defenceless against social calumny,
woman had very little security in such ch-cumstances - except cursing
herself and her fate. Husband was the greatest shield or defence of a woman
and in his absence how crestfallen and helpless a woman could be is obvious
from the following dialogue in Act VII.**
Sita: I am helpless (without my lord). What have I to do with these
(children) ?
Bhägirathi: How canst thou be without a protector since thou hast a
husband?,
Sitä : Of what worth to me is my state of having a lord - a wretched woman
as I am.
Of the last resorts open to a woman, victim of social calumny and injustice -
the most desperate one was suicide and by taking a leaf in Gangä Sitä
attempts it in Act VII*'. Altough her life is saved, this innovation in story by
*' ibid., pp. 6-7 Atidurjana iti vaktavyam.
Devyämapi hi Vaidehyäm säpavädo yato janah.
Rakshog rhastitirmülamaganiäuddhau tvaniscayah .
2< ibid., pp. 26-28.
*5 ibid., p. 96.
2' ibid., p. 149 Sitä: Anädhamhi. Kim Edehim. (Anäthäsmi. Kimetebhyäm.)
Bhägirathi : Katham tvam sanäthapyanäthä.
Sita: Kerisam mama abhaggäe sanähattaam.
(Kidräam me abhägyäyah sanäthatvam)
*' ibid., pp. 144-145.
Woman and Society in Bhavabhuti^ Uttararämacaritam 381
Bhavabhuti must have had its foundation in actual life in the society known
to Bhavabhuti.
The other resort open to a woman in such circumstances was naturally her
mothers house or her mother herself if she were alive. In the Act VII Sita
prays to her mother Prthivi to absorb her in her own self** and later on
Prthivi says: "Come my doughter, sanctify the regions below the earth."**
Obviously going to mothers house would have been more frequent rather
than committing suicide under such or similar circumstances.
Reaction of other women: The reaction of other women characters to the
injustice meeted out to Sitä and her pathetic situation is one of shock bitter
resentment, and deep sympathy. Sitä was banished when Rämas mothers,
Arundhati and Vasistha had gone to her hermitage of Rsyaärnnga to attend
a sacrifice (yajna) and then they heard about this incident. Arundhati said
that she would not go to Ayodhyä, destitute as it was then of her daughter-
in-law. To this Rämas mothers gave consent**. Together with Vasistha they
went to the hermitage of Välmiki instead.
Sitäs friend, the forestgoddess Väsanti censures Räma on his face. The
following dialogue is quite revealing :*'
Väsanti : My lord : Why are you extremely cruel ? . . . Why then was this
unworthy act done by your Majesty?
Räma : Because people would not tolerate it.
Väsanti : For what reason ?
Räma: They themselves know some reason.
Väsanti: Oh hard-hearted one, fame they say is dear to thee, but can any
infamy be more dreadful ?
The dialogue between Sitä's mother Prthivi and Gangä, the tutelary deity
of Raghus house is also significant.
Prthivi : Revered Bhägirathi ! But all this is quite unbecoming on the part of
your dear Räma. He showed no regard for the hand which he as a youth,
has firmly seized in boyhood ; nor did he show any for me nor for Janaka,
** ibid., p. 149.
*° ibid., p. 151, Ehi vatse pavitrikuru rasätalam.
ibid., p. 38. Tato Bhagavatyarundhati näham vadhüvirahitämayodhyäm gamiäyämityah. Tadeva Bämamätrbhiranumoditam.
*' ibid., p. 69, Väsanti: Ayideva kim param därunah khalvasi . . .
tatkimidamakäryamanu^thitam devena.
Räma : Loko na mrsyati.
Väsanti : Kasya hetoh Räma: Sa eva jänäti kimapi
Väsanti : Ayi kathora yaäah kila te priyam
Kimayaäo nanu grhoramatah param.
382 S. N. Misra
nor for fire, nor for the dutiful conduct, (of Sitä) nor for his off¬
spring**.
Bhägirathi : Revered Prthivi, you are the very body of the world . Why then do
you get angry with your son-in-law as if you did not know him well ? A
terrible scandal was spread among the people, and as for that purification
by the fiery ordeal, as it took place in the island of Lankä, how can men
here be expected to believe in it ? This is the precious family inheritance of
the lineage of Ikshväku that the whole world is to be kept contented;
hence in such difficulty what was that darling to do ? ...
. . . Nevertheless I here fold my hands to you**.
Prthivi clearly represents an angry mother-in-law whose son-in-law has
maltreated her daughter. Gangä represents an elderly sagacious and influen-
cial lady of the family of the son-in-law. On one hand she defends Räma, on
another hand she begs pardon on his behalf and reconciliate estranged
mother-in-law with her son-in-law. She also helps Sitä and protects her and
entrusts her sons Kuäa and Lava to Välmiki for the performance of their
rites and education**.
Arundhati - her role as the wife of the family priest: When Väsanti hears
from Ätreyi about the misfortune of Sitä, she asks a very significant
question : "How could this have happened when family was presided over by
Arundhati and Vasistha and when the old queens were still aliv?"**.
She is told that the elderly people were absent at that time. It is to
Arundhati that Gangä and Prthivi hand over Sitä with words of praise** and
it is Arundhati who addresses the people of city and countryside:" 0 ye
citizens and country people, may this queen Sitä, daughter-in-law of the race
of the sun, sprung from sacrificial ground, who has been committed to me
Arundhati with such words of praise by the revered Gangä and Prthivi and
whose chaste behaviour was formerly established by the adorable Pire, and
who was praised by the immortals together with Brahmä be received or not ?
What think ye worthymen 1"*' Lakshmana says : "The subjects, having been
thus scolded by the revered Arundhati and the whole collection of creatures
do obeisance to the noble queen**.
** ibid., p. 147, Bhagavati Bhägirathi joiktametatsarvam na vo Rämabhadra- sya.
Na pramänikrtali pairbälye bälen piditah
Näham na Janako nägnirnänuvrttima santatih.
33 ibid., p. 148.
** ibid., p. 151.
*5 ibid., p. 154.
*' ibid., p. 154.
*' ibid., p. 154-155.
** ibid., pi 154-155.
Woman and Society in Bliavabhutiä Uttararämacaritam 383
In a society based on caste where the importance of priest was undoubted,
such a role could be expected from the wife of a priest. It was the priest who
performed the sacramental rites of matrimony, therefore it could be his wife
who would mediate in such domestic problems and save the marriage from
ending in a tragedy.
Reunion of Sitä with Räma after her banishment was thus a result of the
efforts of Gangä, Prthivi, Arundhati and Välmiki. It is also an innovation
in Räma story introduced by Bhavabhuti to make it a comedy. Such
possibilities are likely to have existed in the society known to Bhavabhuti.
Some of the sociel features refered to in these pages were in all probability
peculiar to the region and time of Bhavabhuti. His attraction towards the
pathetic sentiment (Karuna rasa) might be due to his personal inchnation
rather than due to the then prevailing social situation.
WHAT THE NATIVE GRAMMARIANS
SAY ABOUT TELUGU LANGUAGE
By Saevbswaba Shabma Peri, Mabbueg ;
The language about which I am going to speak is called Telugu or Tenugu'
or Ändhrabhäsa. (Please see aginst No. 1 in the Supplement.) In the
Republic of India, next to Hindi, Telugu is the mother tongue of the largest
number of people ; and a considerable number of people of other langugages
in south India and Madhya Pradesh understand it fairly well. As a result of
the Movement for Linguistic States in general and as a result of Past Unto
Death by the late Potti Srirämulu in 1952 in particular, the Telugu speaking
people have got a separate administrative state since the 1st of November,
1956. This State is called Andhra Pradesh of which Hyderabad is capital.
Telugu is one of the sweetest languages. The sweetness of the language is
due to its vowel endings, vowel harmony in words, the pleasant euphonic
grouping of syllables and avoidance of harsh combinations of hard conso¬
nants. Henry Morris, Praising Telugu, writes in his simplified Telugu Gram¬
mar : "Telugu is singularly melodious. It is the sweetest and most musical of
all the Dravidian Tongues and It sounds harmonious even on the lips of the
most illiterate. It has justly been called the Italian of the East and though
Tamil may, perhaps, bc a richer language and more wealthy in classical
literature, Telugu confessedly bears the palm for its exquisite melody and
grace." (Andhra Day Souvenir, 1962, Nov. 1, p. 65).
Although Telugu is a very old language, the literature in it, which has
come down to us, is of the recent origin. The first poet in Telugu literature is
called Nannaya or Nannyabhattu who lived in the early part of 11th Century
A.D. (Please see against No. 2 in the Supplement.) He translated the first
three Parvans of the Mahäbhäratam into Telugu. In his translation work
Nannayabhattu showed how splendidly he could combine the Sanskritic
element with dcM Telugu in order to raise the dignity and beauty of the
latter. His Mahäbhäratam proved to be not only the first and foremost but
also the most magnificent work in Telugu literature. But it must be observed
that a mighty composition like Mahäbhäratam could never have dramatical¬
ly appeared on the literary stage all of a sudden.
Some kind of Telugu literatm-e must have flomrished in the pre-Nannaya age.
Nannaya prepared also a grammar for Telugu language in Sanskrit in Äryä
metre. This grammar is called Sabdänuiäsanam or Ändhradabdacintämani.
(Please see against No. 3 in the Supplement.) It contains altogether 8 8-92,
