Appendix of Methods
EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF
NATURE-BASED
SOLUTIONS
Climate resilience Participatory planning
and governance
Health and well-being
Water management
Social justice and social cohesion
New economic opportunities and
green jobs
Natural and climate hazards Green space
management
Place regeneration
Biodiversity enhancement Knowledge building
for sustainable urban transformation
Independent
Expert
Report
Evaluating the Impact of Nature-based Solutions: Appendix of Methods European Commission
Directorate-General for Research and Innovation Directorate C — Healthy Planet
Unit C3 — Climate and Planetary Boundaries Contact Laura.PALOMO-RIOS@ec.europa.eu
Sofie.VANDEWOESTIJNE@ec.europa.eu
Email RTD-ENV-NATURE-BASED-SOLUTIONS@ec.europa.eu RTD-PUBLICATIONS@ec.europa.eu
European Commission B-1049 Brussels
Manuscript completed in February 2021.
First edition.
This document has been prepared for the European Commission, however it reflects the views only of the authors, and the European Commission is not liable for any consequence stemming from the reuse of this publication.
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EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Appendix of Methods
Adina Dumitru and Laura Wendling, Eds.
EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF
NATURE-BASED
SOLUTIONS
Table of Contents
1 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF CLIMATE RESILIENCE ... 21
1.1 Carbon removed or stored in vegetation and soil ... 21
1.2 Avoided greenhouse gas emissions from reduced building energy consumption ... 24
1.3 TXx, Monthly mean value of daily maximum temperature ... 26
1.4 TNn, Monthly mean value of daily minimum temperature... 27
1.5 Heatwave Incidence ... 29
2 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF CLIMATE RESILIENCE... 31
2.1. Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation ... 31
2.1.1 Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation per unit area per unit time ... 31
2.1.2 Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation – annual determination ... 34
2.1.3 Total Leaf Area ... 36
2.1.4 Carbon Storage Score ... 38
2.1.5 Measured soil carbon content ... 40
2.1.6 Modelled carbon content of the upper soil layer ... 43
2.1.7 Soil carbon decomposition rate ... 44
2.2 Energy use savings due to green infrastructure implementation ... 46
2.3 Estimated carbon emissions reduction from building energy saving - cooling ... 49
2.4 Energy and CO2 emissions savings from reduced volume of water entering sewers ... 52
2.5 Soil Temperature ... 55
2.6 Total surface area of wetlands... 57
2.7 Surface area of restored and/or created wetlands ... 59
2.8 Aboveground tree biomass ... 61
2.9 Human Comfort... 62
2.9.1 Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) ... 62
2.9.2 Thermal Comfort Score (TCS) ... 65
2.9.3 Physiological equivalent temperature (PET) ... 68
2.9.4 Predicted Mean Vote-Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PMV-PPD) ... 70
2.10 Urban Heat Island Effect ... 72
2.10.1. Urban Heat Island (UHI) incidence ... 72
2.10.2. Number of combined tropical nights and hot days ... 74
2.10.3 Thermal Storage Score ... 76
2.10.4 Thermal Load Score ... 78
2.11 Estimated reduction in peak summer temperature ... 81
2.12 Maximum surface cooling ... 83
2.13 Mean or peak daytime temperature ... 85
2.13.1 Mean or peak daytime temperature - Direct temperature measurement ... 85
2.13.2 Mean or peak daytime temperature - Temperature modelling ... 87
2.14 Daily Temperature Range (DTR) ... 89
2.15 Cooling of ambient air ... 90
2.15.1 Air cooling ... 90
2.15.2 Air temperature reduction ... 93
2.16 Tree shade for local heat reduction... 107
2.17 Rate of evapotranspiration ... 119
2.18 Land surface temperature ... 122
2.19 Surface reflectance - Albedo ... 125
2.20 Estimated carbon emissions from vehicle traffic ... 130
3 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF WATER MANAGEMENT ... 132
3.13 Surface runoff in relation to precipitation quantity ... 132
3.13.1 Direct measurement ... 132
3.13.2 Curve Number method... 134
3.13.3 Rational method ... 137
3.13.4 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curve method ... 140
3.13.5 Process-based hydraulic modelling ... 143
3.14 Water Quality – general urban ... 147
3.15 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) content... 154
3.16 Nitrogen and phosphorus concentration or load ... 157
3.17 Metal concentration or load ... 160
3.18 Total faecal coliform bacteria... 163
4 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF WATER MANAGEMENT ... 167
4.13 Measured infiltration rate and capacity ... 167
4.14 Calculated infiltration rate and capacity ... 170
4.15 Evapotranspiration rate ... 173
4.16 Peak flow variation ... 176
4.17 Flood peak reduction and delay ... 179
4.18 Height of flood peak and time to flood peak measurement ... 185
4.19 Flood excess volume (FEV) ... 187
4.20 Rainfall interception rate of NBS ... 191
4.21 Runoff rate for different rainfall events ... 193
4.22 Run-Off Score ... 194
4.23 Rainfall storage capacity of NBS... 196
4.24 Quantitative status of groundwater ... 202
4.25 Depth to groundwater ... 204
4.26 Groundwater chemical status ... 206
4.27 Trend in piezometric levels (TPL) ... 210
4.28 Groundwater exploitation index (GEI) ... 211
4.29 Aquifer surface ratio with excessive nitrate ... 214
4.30 Aquifer surface ratio with excessive arsenic ... 216
4.31 Water availability for irrigation purposes ... 218
4.32 Water Exploitation Index ... 220
4.33 Water dependency for food production ... 222
4.34 Calculated drinking water provision ... 224
4.35 Net surface water availability ... 225
4.36 Volume of water removed from water treatment system ... 226
4.37 Volume of water slowed down entering sewer system ... 228
4.38 Total surface area of wetlands within a defined area ... 230
4.39 Total surface area of restored and/or created wetlands ... 232
4.40 Soil water flux ... 234
4.41 Soil water retention capacity ... 236
4.42 Stemflow rate ... 238
4.43 Percolation rate under different rainfall events... 239
4.44 Dissolved oxygen (DO) content of NBS effluents ... 241
4.45 Eutrophication ... 243
4.46 pH of NBS effluents ... 244
4.47 Electrical conductivity of NBS effluents ... 247
4.48 Water Framework Directive: Physico-chemical quality of surface waters ... 249
4.49 Total pollutant discharge to local waterbodies... 253
4.50 Water Quality: basic physical parameters ... 255
4.51 Total polycyclic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of NBS effluents ... 257
4.52 Total organic carbon (TOC) content of NBS effluents... 260
4.53 General ecological status of surface waters ... 262
4.54 Ecological potential for heavily modified or artificial water bodies ... 265
4.55 Biological quality of surface waters ... 268
4.56 Total number and species richness of aquatic macroinvertebrates ... 271
4.57 Morphological Quality Index (MQI) ... 274
4.58 Hydromorphological quality of surface waters ... 278
4.59 Fluvial Functionality Index ... 280
5 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF NATURAL AND CLIMATE HAZARDS ... 283
5.13 Disaster Resilience ... 283
5.14 Disaster-risk informed development ... 285
5.15 Mean annual direct and indirect losses due to natural and climate hazards ... 286
5.16 Risk to critical urban infrastructure ... 289
5.17 Mean number of people adversely affected by natural disasters each year ... 295
5.18 Multi-hazard early warning ... 298
6 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF NATURAL AND CLIMATE HAZARDS ... 300
6.13 Potential areas exposed to risks ... 300
6.13.1 Urban/residential areas ... 300
6.13.2 Productive areas ... 301
6.14 Natural areas, sites of community importance and special protection areas ... 302
6.15 Potential population exposed to risks ... 303
6.15.1 Inhabitants ... 303
6.15.2 Area and population exposed to flooding ... 304
6.15.3 Other people (workers, tourists, homeless)... 308
6.15.4 Elderly, children, disabled ... 309
6.16 Potential Population Vulnerable to Risks ... 310
6.16.1 Population ... 310
6.17 Potential buildings exposed to risks ... 311
6.17.1 Housing ... 311
6.17.2 Agricultural and industrial buildings ... 312
6.17.3 Strategic Buildings (Hospitals, schools, etc.) ... 313
6.18 Potential infrastructures exposed to risks ... 314
6.18.1 Roads ... 314
6.18.2 Railways ... 315
6.18.3 Lifelines ... 316
6.19 Potential infrastructures vulnerable to risks... 318
6.19.1 Buildings ... 318
6.19.2 Transportation infrastructures and lifelines ... 319
6.20 Insurance against catastrophic events ... 320
6.21 Flood hazard ... 321
6.22 Flooded area ... 323
6.23 Height of flood peak and time to flood peak ... 324
6.24 Peak flow rate ... 326
6.25 Peak flood volume ... 327
6.26 Flood excess volume... 329
6.27 Moisture index ... 333
6.28 Flammability index ... 334
6.29 Soil Type ... 335
6.30 Soil strength ... 336
6.31 Soil temperature ... 338
6.32 Level of Groundwater Table ... 339
6.33 Shallow landslide risk – slope stability factor of safety ... 340
6.34 Landslide safety factor ... 341
6.35 Landslide risk – History of instability on site ... 343
6.36 Occurred landslide area ... 344
6.37 Landslide risk – Digital elevation/terrain modelling ... 345
6.38 Soil mass movement ... 347
6.39 Velocity of occurred landslide ... 348
6.40 Erosion risk... 349
6.41 Total Predicted Soil Loss (RUSLE)... 351
6.42 Days with temperature >90th percentile (TX90p) ... 352
6.43 Warm spell duration index (WSDI) ... 354
6.44 Heatwave incidence ... 355
6.45 Human comfort: Universal thermal climate index (UTCI) ... 357
6.46 Human comfort: Physiological equivalent temperature (PET) ... 360
6.47 Human comfort Predicted Mean Vote-Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PMV-PPD) ... 363
6.48 Urban Heat Island (UHI) incidence ... 365
6.49 Effective drought index ... 366
6.50 Standardized Precipitation Index ... 367
6.51 Groundwater level ... 369
6.52 Trend in piezometric levels (TPL) ... 371
6.53 Groundwater exploitation index ... 373
6.54 Calculated drinking water provision ... 375
6.55 Water Exploitation Index ... 377
6.56 Net surface water availability ... 379
6.57 Water availability for irrigation purposes ... 380
6.58 Avalanche Risk: Snow cover map ... 383
7 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF GREEN SPACE MANAGEMENT ... 385
7.1 Green space accessibility ... 385
7.2 Total green space within a defined area: Share of green urban areas ... 391
7.3 Soil organic matter ... 394
7.3.1 Soil Organic Matter Index ... 395
8 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF GREEN SPACE MANAGEMENT ... 398
8.1 Ecosystem service provision ... 398
8.2 Annual trend in vegetation cover in urban green infrastructure ... 406
8.3 Edge density ... 411
8.3.1 Public green space distribution (applied and EO/RS) ... 413
8.5 Distribution of blue space ... 418
8.6 Effective green infrastructure in the urban-rural interface ... 423
8.7 Hot spot in peri-urban green infrastructure... 425
8.8 Biotope Area Factor ... 428
8.9 Total vegetation cover ... 431
8.9.1 Woody vegetation cover ... 432
8.9.2 Non-woody vegetation cover ... 433
8.9.3 Total Leaf Area ... 434
8.10 Diversity of green space ... 436
8.11 Stages of forest stand development -Number of class diameter ... 437
8.12 Tree regeneration ... 439
8.13 Canopy gaps ... 440
8.14 Tree biomass stock change ... 441
8.15 Soil carbon content ... 442
8.15.1 Measured soil carbon content ... 442
8.15.2 Modelled carbon content of the upper soil layer ... 445
8.15.3 Soil carbon to nitrogen ratio ... 446
8.15.4 Soil carbon decomposition rate ... 450
8.16 Soil matric potential ... 451
8.17 Soil temperature ... 452
8.18 Soil water holding capacity (field capacity) ... 454
8.19 Plant-available water ... 455
8.19.1 Plant available soil water ... 455
8.19.2 Soil water available for plant uptake (SAW metric) ... 457
8.20 Vegetation Wilting Point ... 459
8.21 Soil water flux and degree of soil saturation ... 460
8.22 Stemflow funnelling ratio ... 462
8.23 Soil Erodibility ... 464
8.24 Total Predicted Soil Loss (RUSLE)... 465
8.25 Soil Ecotoxicological Factor ... 466
8.26 Soil structure ... 468
8.27 Soil chemical fertility ... 470
8.28 Flammability Index... 472
8.29 Community garden area ... 473
8.30 Food production in urban allotments and NBS ... 476
8.31 Recreational opportunities provided by green infrastructure ... 478
8.31.1 ESTIMAP nature-based recreation model ... 480
8.31.2 Number of visitors in new recreational areas ... 486
8.31.3 Number of and reasons for visits to an NBS area ... 488
8.31.4 Frequency of use of green and blue spaces ... 491
8.31.5 Activities allowed in recreational areas ... 493
8.32 Visual access to green space ... 494
8.32.1 Viewshed ... 496
8.33 Satisfaction with green and blue spaces ... 497
8.34 Betweenness centrality ... 499
8.35 Proportion of road network dedicated to pedestrians and/or bicyclists ... 502
8.35.1 New pedestrian, cycling and horse paths ... 503
8.35.2 Sustainable transportation modes allowed ... 505
8.36 New links between urban centres and NBS ... 506
8.37 Walkability... 507
8.38 Land composition ... 509
8.39 Land use change and green space configuration ... 512
8.40 Soil sealing ... 516
8.41 Ambient pollen concentration ... 521
9 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF BIODIVERSITY ENHANCEMENT ... 524
9.1 Structural and functional connectivity of urban green and blue spaces ... 524
9.1.1 Structural connectivity of green space ... 539
9.1.2 Functional connectivity of urban green and blue spaces ... 540
9.2 Number of native species ... 541
9.3 Number of non-native species introduced ... 543
9.3.1 Number of invasive alien species ... 545
9.4 Species diversity within defined area per Shannon Diversity Index ... 546
9.5 Number of species within defined area per Shannon Evenness Index ... 548
10 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF BIODIVERSITY ENHANCEMENT ... 550
10.1 Proportion of natural areas within a defined urban zone ... 550
10.2 Area of habitats restored ... 551
10.3 Shannon Diversity Index of habitats ... 553
10.3.1 Abundance of ecotones/Shannon diversity ... 555
10.4 Length of ecotones ... 556
10.5 Publicly accessible green space connectivity ... 558
10.6 Ecological integrity ... 561
10.7 Proportion of protected areas ... 564
10.7.1 Sites of community importance and special protection areas ... 566
10.7.2 Article17 habitat richness ... 567
10.8 Number of veteran trees per unit area ... 569
10.9 Quantity of dead wood per unit area ... 571
10.10 Forest habitat fragmentation – Effective Mesh Density ... 573
10.11 Extent of habitat for native pollinator species ... 575
10.12 Polluted soils ... 578
10.13 Soil food web stability ... 580
10.14 Modelled C and N cycling in soil ... 582
10.15 Equivalent used soil ... 583
10.16 Number/proportion of conservation priority species ... 585
10.17 Article17 species richness ... 588
10.18 Number of native bird species within a defied urban area... 590
10.19 Species diversity – general... 591
10.19.1 City Biodiversity Index ... 602
10.20 Bird species richness ... 604
10.21 Animal species potentially at risk... 606
10.22 Typical vegetation species cover ... 608
10.23 Pollinator species presence... 609
10.24 Biodiversity Conservation... 611
10.25 Metagenomic mapping ... 623
10.25.1 Abundance of functional groups ... 624
10.25.2 Diversity of functional groups (plants) ... 626
10.25.3 Diversity of functional groups (animals) ... 627
11 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF AIR QUALITY ... 630
11.1 Number of days during which air quality parameters exceed threshold values ... 630
11.2 Proportion of population exposed to ambient air pollution ... 635
11.3 European Air Quality Index ... 641
12 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF AIR QUALITY ... 647
12.1 Removal of atmospheric pollutants by vegetation ... 647
12.2 Total particulate matter removed by NBS vegetation ... 649
12.3 Modelled O3, SO2, NO2 and CO capture/removal by vegetation ... 651
12.3.1 Total Leaf Area ... 654
12.4 NOX and PM in gaseous releases ... 655
12.5 Ambient pollen concentration ... 660
12.6 Trends in NOx and SOx emissions ... 662
12.7 Concentration of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), NO2, and O3 in ambient air ... 666
12.8 Concentration of particulate matter at respiration height along roads... 669
12.9 Mean level of exposure to ambient air pollution ... 672
12.10 Morbidity, Mortality and Years of Life Lost due to poor air quality ... 676
12.11 Avoided costs for air pollution control measures ... 679
13 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF PLACE REGENERATION ... 683
13.1 Derelict land reclaimed for NBS ... 683
13.2 Quantity of blue-green space as ratio to built form ... 685
13.3 Perceived quality of urban green, blue and blue-green spaces ... 686
13.4 Place attachment (Sense of Place): Place identity ... 692
13.5 Recreational value of public green space ... 699
13.6 Incorporation of environmental design in buildings ... 704
13.7 Preservation of cultural heritage ... 706
14 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF PLACE REGENERATION ... 709
14.1 Share of Green Urban Areas... 709
14.2 Land composition ... 711
14.3 Land take index ... 717
14.4 Area devoted to roads... 718
14.5 Traditional knowledge and uses reclamation ... 719
14.6 Traditional events organised in NBS areas ... 721
14.7 Social active associations ... 723
14.8 Retail and commercial activity in proximity to green space ... 724
14.9 Number of new businesses created and gross value added to local economy ... 726
14.10 Social return on investment ... 728
14.11 Population mobility ... 736
14.12 Population growth ... 738
14.13 Proportion of elderly residents ... 740
14.14 Areal sprawl ... 742
14.15 Access to public amenities ... 744
14.16 NBS distance from urban centres and public transport... 750
14.17 Natural and cultural sites made available ... 751
14.18 Historical and cultural meaning ... 753
14.19 Cultural value of blue-green spaces ... 755
14.20 Opportunities for tourism ... 759
14.21 Building structure – Urban form ... 760
14.22 Material used coherence ... 765
14.23 Techniques used coherence ... 767
14.24 Design for sense of place ... 768
14.25 Viewshed ... 770
14.26 Scenic sites and landmarks created ... 772
14.27 Scenic paths created ... 774
15 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIAL CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSFORMATION ... 776
15.1 Citizen involvement in environmental education activities ... 776
15.2 Social learning regarding ecosystems and their functions/services ... 782
15.3 Pro-environmental identity ... 784
15.4 Pro-environmental behaviour ... 790
16 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIAL CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSFORMATION ... 800
16.1 Children involved in environmental educational activities ... 800
16.2 Engagement with NBS sites/projects ... 802
16.3 Mindfulness ... 805
16.4 Proportion of schoolchildren involved in gardening ... 806
16.5 Citizens’ awareness regarding urban nature and ecosystem services ... 808
16.6 Green intelligence awareness ... 811
16.7 Positive environmental attitudes motivated by contact with NBS ... 816
16.8 Urban farming educational and/or participatory activities ... 825
17 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE ... 827
17.1 Openness of participatory processes ... 827
17.1.1 Openness of participatory processes: proportion of citizens involved ... 833
17.2 Sense of empowerment: perceived control and influence over decision-making ... 834
17.3 Public-private partnerships activated ... 842
17.4 Policy learning for mainstreaming NBS ... 843
17.5 Trust in decision-making procedure and decision-makers ... 845
18 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE ... 850
18.1 Community involvement in planning ... 850
18.1.1 Citizen involvement in co-creation/co-design of NBS ... 852
18.1.2 Stakeholder involvement in co-creation/co-design of NBS ... 853
18.2 Community involvement in implementation ... 854
18.3 Involvement of citizens from traditionally under-represented groups ... 856
18.4 Active engagement of citizens in decision-making ... 858
18.5 Consciousness of citizenship ... 860
18.6 Number of governance innovations adopted ... 862
18.7 Adoption of new forms of NBS (co-)financing ... 866
18.8 Development of a climate resilience strategy (extent) ... 868
18.9 Alignment of climate resilience strategy with UNISDR-defined elements ... 870
18.10 Adaptation of local plans and regulations to include NBS... 872
18.11 Perceived ease of governance of NBS ... 874
18.12 Diversity of stakeholders involved ... 876
19 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND SOCIAL COHESION ... 911
19.1 Bridging and bonding – quality of interactions within and between social groups ... 911
19.1.1 Bridging ... 911
19.1.2 Bonding ... 915
19.2 Inclusion of different social groups in NBS projects ... 919
19.3 Trust within the community ... 922
19.4 Solidarity among neighbours ... 927
19.5 Tolerance and respect ... 931
19.6 Availability and equitable distribution of blue-green space ... 936
20 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND SOCIAL COHESION ... 939
20.1 Linking social capital ... 939
20.2 Perceived social interaction ... 944
20.3 Quantity and quality of social interaction ... 946
20.4 Perceived social support ... 947
20.4.1 Perception of socially supportive network ... 947
20.4.2 Perceived social support ... 949
20.5 Perceived social cohesion ... 950
20.6 Perceived ownership of space and sense of belonging to the community... 951
20.7 Proportion of community who volunteer ... 954
20.8 Proportion of target group reached by an NBS project... 956
20.9 Perceived personal safety ... 958
20.10 Perceived safety of neighbourhood ... 961
20.11 Number of violent incidents, nuisances and crimes per 100 000 population ... 968
20.12 Realised safety ... 970
20.13 Area easily accessible for people with disabilities ... 974
20.14 Change in properties incomes ... 975
21 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF HEALTH AND WELLBEING ... 977
21.1 Level of outdoor physical activity ... 977
21.2 Level of chronic stress (Perceived stress) ... 983
21.3 General wellbeing and happiness ... 984
21.4 Self-reported mental health and wellbeing ... 989
21.5 Cardiovascular diseases (prevalence, incidence, morbidity and mortality) ... 990
21.6 Quality of Life ... 996
22 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF HEALTH AND WELL-BEING ... 999
22.1 Self-reported physical activity ... 999
22.2 Observed physical activity level within NBS ... 1000
22.3 Encouraging a healthy lifestyle ... 1002
22.4 Incidence of obesity ... 1004
22.5 Heat-related discomfort: Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) ... 1009
22.6 Hospital admissions due to high temperature during extreme heat events ... 1012
22.7 Heat-related mortality ... 1013
22.8 Exposure to noise pollution ... 1018
22.9 Perceived chronic loneliness ... 1023
22.10 Somatisation ... 1026
22.11 Mindfulness ... 1028
22.12 Visual access to green space ... 1029
22.13 Perceived restorativeness of public green space/ NBS ... 1031
22.14 Perceived social support ... 1037
22.15 Connectedness to nature ... 1038
22.16 Prevalence of attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ... 1039
22.17 Exploratory behaviour in children ... 1043
22.18 Self-reported anxiety ... 1046
22.19 Prevalence, incidence, morbidity and mortality of respiratory diseases ... 1048
22.20 Morbidity, Mortality and Years of Life Lost due to poor air quality ... 1054
22.21 Prevalence and incidence of autoimmune diseases... 1057
22.22 Prevalence, incidence and morbidity of chronic stress ... 1062
23 RECOMMENDED INDICATORS OF NEW ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND GREEN JOBS ... 1068
23.1 Valuation of NBS ... 1068
23.1.1 Value of NBS calculated using GI-Val ... 1068
23.1.2 Economic Value of Urban Nature Index ... 1072
23.2 Mean land and/or property value in proximity to green space ... 1074
23.2.1 Change in mean house prices/ rental markets ... 1077
23.2.2 Average land productivity and profitability ... 1079
23.2.3 Property betterment and visual amenity enhancement ... 1080
23.3 Number of new jobs created ... 1082
23.4 Retail and commercial activity in proximity to green space ... 1085
23.5 Number of new businesses created and gross value added to local economy ... 1087
23.6 Recreational monetary value ... 1089
23.7 Overall economic, social and health wellbeing ... 1092
24 ADDITIONAL INDICATORS OF NEW ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND GREEN JOBS ... 1097
24.1 New businesses established in proximity to NBS ... 1097
24.2 Value of rates paid by businesses in proximity to NBS... 1099
24.3 New customers to businesses in proximity to NBS ... 1101
24.4 Local economy GDP ... 1104
24.5 Initial costs of NBS implementation ... 1107
24.6 Maintenance costs of NBS ... 1109
24.7 Replacement costs of NBS ... 1110
24.8 Avoided costs due to NBS implementation ... 1112
24.9 Payback period for NBS ... 1113
24.10 Reduced/avoided damage costs ... 1115
24.11 Social Return on Investment (SROI) ... 1116
24.12 Income produced via application of green policies ... 1125
24.13 Subsidies applied for private NBS measures ... 1126
24.14 Private finance attracted to the NBS site ... 1129
24.15 Increase in tourism ... 1132
24.16 New activities in the tourism sector ... 1133
24.17 Gross profit from nature-based tourism ... 1135
24.18 Number of new jobs in green sector... 1137
24.19 Jobs created in NBS construction and maintenance ... 1140
24.20 New employment in the tourism sector ... 1142
24.21 Turnover in the green sector ... 1143
24.22 Employment in agriculture ... 1145
24.23 Rural Productivity Index ... 1146
24.24 Economic value of productive activities vulnerable to risks ... 1148
24.25 Innovation impact ... 1149
24.26 Income/Disposable income per capita ... 1154
24.26.1 Monthly disposable income ... 1157
24.27 Upskilling and related earnings increase ... 1159
24.28 Population mobility ... 1162
24.29 Avoided cost of run-off treatment ... 1163
24.30 Correction Cost of Groundwater Quality ... 1166
24.31 Dissuasive cost of water abstraction ... 1168
24.32 Average water productivity ... 1169
24.33 New areas made available for traditional productive uses... 1170
24.34 Value of food produced ... 1172
24.35 Renewable energy produced ... 1173
CONTRIBUTORS TO INDICATORS OF NBS PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Project Name: CLEARING HOUSE – Collaborative Learning in research, information-sharing and governance on how urban tree-based solutions support Sino-European urban futures (Grant Agreement no. 821242)
Author/s and affiliations: Rik De Vreese1, Sebastian Scheuer2
1 EFI – European Forest Institute, Bonn, Germany
2 Geography Department, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Project Name: CLEVER Cities – Co-designing locally tailored ecological solutions for value added, socially inclusive regeneration in cities (Grant Agreement no.
776604)
Author/s and affiliations: Julita Skodra1, Anne Rödl2, Maddalen Mendizabal3, Karmele Herranz-Pascual3, Saioa Zorita3, Igone García3
1 UKE – University Hospital Essen, Institute for Urban Public Health (InUPH), Essen, Germany
2 TUHH – Hamburg University of Technology Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics Energy Systems - Environmental Assessment and Life Cycle Assessment, Hamburg, Germany
3 TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, 20009 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Project Name: CONNECTING Nature – Coproduction with nature for city transitioning, innovation and governance (Grant Agreement no. 730222)
Author/s and affiliations: Stuart Connop1, Conor Dowling4, Diana Dushkova2, Dagmar Haase2, C. Nash1, Adina Dumitru3, Mary Lee Rhodes4, Catalina Young5, Irina Macsinga5, David Tomé-Lourido3, Katharina Hölscher6, Marleen Lodder6, Kato Allaert6, Nena Bode6, Barbara Goličnik Marušić7, Živa Ravknikar7
1 SRI - Sustainability Research Institute, University of East London, United Kingdom
2 Geography Department, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
3 Sustainability Specialization Campus, University of A Coruña, Spain
4 Trinity Business School, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
5 West University of Timisoara, Romania
6 DRIFT - Dutch Research Institute for Transitions, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
7 Urban planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia
Project Name: EdiCitNet – Edible Cities Network: Integrating Edible City Solutions for socially resilient and sustainably productive cities (Grant Agreement no. 776665)
Author/s and affiliations: Joana Castellar1, Joaquim Comas1, Sebastian Eiter2, Wendy Fjellstad2, Bernhard Freyer3, Maximilian Manderscheid3, Kristin Reichborn- Kjennerud4, Ricardo Teixeira da Silva5
1 ICRA – Catalan Institute for Water Research, Girona, Spain
2 NIBIO – Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Department of Landscape Monitoring, Ås, Norway
3 BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Division of Organic Farming, Vienna, Austria
4 OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Work Research Institute, Oslo, Norway
5 WUR – Wageningen University and Research, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Project Name: GROW GREEN – Green cities for climate and water resilience, sustainable economic growth, healthy citizens and environments (Grant Agreement no. 730283)
Author/s and affiliations: Maddalen Mendizabal1
1 TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, 20009 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Project Name: MAvES (Mapping, Assessment and Valuation of Ecosystems and their Services) (JRC-D3- Institutional project)
Author/s and affiliations: Grazia Zulian1, Joachim Maes1, Guido Ceccherini2
1 European Commission Directorate-General Joint Research Centre Directorate D (D3 -Land Resources)
2 European Commission Directorate-General Joint Research Centre Directorate D (D1 -Bio- Economy)
Project Name: NAIAD – Nature insurance value: Assessment and demonstration (Grant Agreement no. 730497)
Author/s and affiliations: Guillaume Piton1, Jean-Marc Tacnet1, Beatriz Mayor2, Laura Vay2, Marisol Manzano3, Virginia Robles3, Mar García‐Alcaraz3, Javier Calatrava4, Raffaele Giordano5, Miguel Llorente6, Africa de la Hera6, Javier Heredida6, Laura Basco7, Marta Faneca7, Tiaravanni Hermawan7, Elena Lopez- Gunn2
1 Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INRAE, ETNA, Grenoble, France
2 I-CATALIST S.L., C/ Borni, 20, 28232 Las Rozas, Madrid, Spain
3 UPTC, Department of Mining and Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cartagena, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
4 UPTC, Department of Business Economics, Technical University of Cartagena, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
5 CNR-IRSA, National Research Council – Water Research Institute, Bari, Italy
6 IGME, Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME)/Geological Survey of Spain, Ríos Rosas 23, 28003 Madrid, Spain
7 Deltares, Boussinesqweg 1 2629 HV Delft, P.O. Box 177, 2600 MH Delft
Project Name: Nature4Cities – Nature Based Solutions for re-naturing cities:
knowledge diffusion and decision support platform through new collaborative models (Grant Agreement no. 730468)
Author/s and affiliations: Katia Chancibault1, Fabrice Rodriguez1, Stéphanie Decker2, Pauline Laille3, Ryad Bouzouidja4, Patrice Cannavo4, Colin Lemée5, Ghozlane Fleury5, Flora Szkordilisz6, Federico Silvestri7, Barnabás Körmöndi6, Véronique Beaujouan4, Nicola Pisani7, Márton Kiss8, Florian Kraus9, Bernhard Scharf9, Gauvreau Benoit10, Javier Babi Almenar11, Claudio Petucco11, Benedetto Rugani11
1 LUNAM, IFSTTAR, GERS, LEE, route de Bouaye CS4, 44344 Bouguenais, France
2 NOBATEK/INEF4, 67 Rue de Mirambeau, 64600 Anglet, France
3 Plante & Cité, Maison du végétal, 26 rue Jean Dixméras, 49066 ANGERS Cedex 1,France
4 Institut Agro – Ecole interne AGROCAMPUS OUEST, 2 rue André Le Nôtre, 49045 Angers Cedex 01, France
5 LPPL EA 4638, Université de Nantes - Faculté de Psychologie Chemin de la Censive du Tertre - BP 81227, 44312 Nantes Cedex 3, France
6 Hungarian Urban Knowledge Center, Budapest, Hungary
7 Colouree, Genova, Italy
8 University ofSzeged, Szeged, Hungary
9 Green4Cities GmbH/GREENPASS GmbH
10 Unité Mixte de Recherche en Acoustique Environnementale, IFSTTAR, Centre de Nantes, France
11 RDI Unit on Environmental Sustainability Assessment and Circularity / Environmental Research
& Innovation (ERIN) department / Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST) – 41 Rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg
Project Name: Naturvation – Nature based urban innovation (Grant Agreement no. 730243)
Author/s and affiliations: Peter Olsson1, Anja Werner2, Elisabeth Reich2, Marija Bockarjova3, Sara Maia4, Dora Almassy4
1 CEC – Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
2 IfL – Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography, Leipzig, Germany
3 Utrecht University School of Economics, Utrecht, the Netherlands
4 Central European University (CEU), Budapest, Hungary
Project Name: OPERANDUM – Open-Air Laboratories for Nature Based Solutions to Manage Environmental Risks (Grant Agreement no. 776848)
Author/s and affiliations: Slobodan B. Mickovski1, Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri1, Karen Munro1
1 Built Environment Asset Management Centre, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Project Name: PHUSICOS – According to Nature (Grant Agreement no. 776681) Author/s and affiliations: Gerardo Caroppi1,2, Carlo Gerundo2, Francesco Pugliese2, Maurizio Giugni2, Marialuce Stanganelli2, Vittoria Capobianco3, Farrokh Nadim3, Amy Oen3
1 Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, Espoo, Finland (gerardo.caroppi@aalto.fi)
2 University of Naples Federico II (UNINA), Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Naples, Italy
3 Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo, Norway
Project Name: proGIreg – Productive Green Infrastructure for post-industrial urban regeneration (Grant Agreement no. 776528)
Author/s and affiliations: Chiara Baldacchini1,2, Gabriele Guidolotti1, Giuseppina Spano3, Yole de Bellis3, Giovanni Sanesi3, Carmen de Keijzer4, Payam Dadvand4, Elizabeth Gil-Roldán5, Chiara Ferracini6, Monica Vercelli6, Francesca Martelli6, Federica Paradiso6, Simona Bonelli6, Carlo Calfapietra1
1 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy
2 Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
3 Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
4 Fundacion Privada Instituto de Salud Global Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
5 Starlab Barcelona SL, Barcelona, Spain
6 Università degli Studi di Torino, Turin, Italy
Project Name: RECONECT – Regenerating Ecosystems with Nature-Based Solutions for Hydro-Metrorological Risk Reduction (Grant Agreement no. 776866) Author/s and affiliations: Ben Wheeler1, Ursula McKnight2, Karsten Arnbjerg- Nielsen2, Marzenna Rasmussen3, Laddaporn Ruangpan4, Zoran Vojinovic4, Arlex Sanchez Torres4, Slobodan Djordjevic5
1 University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro, TR1 3HD
2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
3 Amphi Consult, Odense, Denmark
4 IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Delft, the Netherlands
5 University of Exeter,UK
Project Name: REGREEN – Fostering nature-based solutions for smart, green and healthy urban transitions in Europe and China (Grant Agreement no. 821016) Author/s and affiliations: Laurence Jones1, Marianne Zandersen2
1 UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Environment Centre Wales, Deinol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
2 Department of Environmental Science and iClimate, Interdisciplinary Centre for Climate Change, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Project Name: UNaLab – Urban Nature Labs (Grant Agreement no. 730052) Author/s and affiliations: Laura Wendling1, Ville Rinta-Hiiro1, Maria Dubovik1, Arto Laikari1, Johannes Jermakka1, Zarrin Fatima1, Malin zu-Castell Rüdenhausen1, Ana Ascenso2, Silvia Coelho2, Ana Isabel Miranda2, Peter Roebeling2, Ricardo Martins2, Rita Mendonça2, Silvia Vella3, Margherita Cioffi3
1 VTT Technical Research Centre Ltd, P.O. Box 1000 FI-02044 VTT, Finland
2 CESAM – Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
3 RINA Consulting, Via Antonio Cecchi, 6, 16129 Genoa Italy
Project Name: URBAN GreenUP – New strategy for re-naturing cities through nature-based solutions (Grant Agreement no. 730426)
Author/s and affiliations: Raúl Sánchez1, Jose Fermoso1, Silvia Gómez1, María González1, Jose María Sanz1, Esther San José1, Paul Nolan2, Clare Olver2, Tom Butlin2, Alicia Villazán3, Isabel Sánchez3
1 CARTIF Foundation. Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo, 205, 47151, Boecillo, Valladolid, Spain
2 The Mersey Forest Offices, Risley Moss, Ordnance Avenue, Birchwood, Warrington, WA3 6QX
3 VALLADOLID City Council. Plaza Mayor 1, 47001, Valladolid, Spain
Project Name: URBiNAT – Healthy corridors as drivers of social housing neighbourhoods for the co-creation of social, environmental and marketable NBS (Grant Agreement no. 776783)
Author/s and affiliations: Beatriz Caitana1, Marcel Cardinali2, Guido Ferilli3, Isabel Ferreira1, Jose Miguel Lameiras4,5, Paulo Farinha Maques4, Gonçalo Canto Moniz1, Nathalie Nunes1, Beatriz Truta4, Emma Zavarrone3
1 Centre for Social Studies, Colégio de S. Jerónimo, Apartado 3087, 3000-995 Coimbra, Portugal
2 OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Campusallee 12, 32657 Lemgo, Germany
3 Department of Humanities, Libera Università di Lingue e Comunicazione di Milano IULM, Milan, Italy
4 FCUP - Department of Geosciences, Environment and Landscape Planning, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
5 CIBIO - ICETA - Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, nº 7, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
FOREWORD
Evaluating the Impact of Nature-based Solutions: Appendix of Methods is a compilation of methods of determination for indicators of NBS performance and impact. Experts in a wide variety of disciplines from eighteen EU H2020 NBS projects and a number of supporting European programmes were directly involved in the production of this Appendix of Methods, inlcuding (in aplhabetical order):
• CLEARING HOUSE (H2020 Grant Agreement no.821242)
• CLEVER Cities (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776604)
• CONNECTING Nature (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730222)
• EdiCitNet (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776665)
• GROW GREEN (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730283)
• MAES (JRC-D3-Institutional project)
• NAIAD (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730497)
• Nature4Cities (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730468)
• Naturvation (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730243)
• OPERANDUM (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776848)
• PHUSICOS (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776681)
• proGIreg (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776528)
• RECONECT (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776866)
• REGREEN (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 821016)
• UNaLab (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730052)
• URBAN GreenUP (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 730426)
• URBiNAT (H2020 Grant Agreement no. 776783)
INTRODUCTION
Evaluating the Impact of Nature-based Solutions: Appendix of Methods is designed to support the implementation of impact indicators listed in Chapter 4 of the accompanying report, Evaluating the Impact of Nature-based Solutions: A Handbook for Practitioners by briefly summarising the respective methods of determination for each of the indicators mentioned in the Handbook for Practitioners. The methods of indicator determination are organised by the societal challenge area addressed and further grouped as Recommended and Additional, as categorised by the contributing authors.
The 12 societal challenge areas across which methods of indicator determination are grouped are:
1. Climate Resilience 2. Water Management
3. Natural and Climate Hazards 4. Green Space Management 5. Biodiversity Enhancement 6. Air Quality
7. Place Regeneration
8. Knowledge and Social Capacity Building for Sustainable Urban Transformation
9. Participatory Planning and Governance 10. Social Justice and Social Cohesion 11. Health and Wellbeing
12. New Economic Opportunities and Green Jobs
The individual co-authors and respective affiliated project(s) are noted for each method presented here. In addition to a brief description of the technique, each method of indicator determination presented includes a description and justification, a definition of the indicator including units of measurement, notes on the strengths and weaknesses of each method, and advice regarding the scale at which the indicator can be determined. Data souces are addressed, including required data and the type of input data (quantitative or qualitative), the frequency of data collection and level of expertise required to collect and synthesise the data. Synergies with other indicators and connections to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are also noted, along with identified opportunities for participatory data collection. Additional sources of information for each method are provided with an emphasis on easily available sources (e.g., Open Access journal articles and online reports).
CLIMATE RESILIENCE
Coordinating Lead authors Wendling, L.; Mendizabal, M.
Lead authors
Baldacchini, C.; Caroppi, G.; Connop, S.; Dubovik, M.; Fermoso, J.; Guidolotti, G; Kraus, F.; Mickovski, S. B.; San José, E.
Contributing authors
Ascenso, A.; Butlin, T.; Corbella, C.; Coelho, S.; Dushkova, D.; Fatima, Z.;
Gerundo, C.; Giugni, M.; Gómez, S.; González, M.; Haase, D.; Jermakka, J.;
Kiss, M.; Körmöndi, B.; Laikari, A.; Martins, R.; Mendonça, R.; Miranda, A. I.;
Munro, K.; Nadim, F.; Nash, C.; Nolan, P.; Oen, A.; Gonzalez-Ollauri, A.;
Olsson, P.; Olver, C.; Pugliese, F.; Rinta-Hiiro, V.; Roebeling, P.; Sánchez, I.;
Sánchez, R.; Sanchis, S.; Sanz, J. M.; Scharf, B.; Stanganelli, M.; Villazán, A.;
zu-Castell Rüdenhausen, M.
1. R
ECOMMENDEDI
NDICATORS OFC
LIMATER
ESILIENCE1.1. Carbon removed or stored in vegetation and soil Project Name: UNaLab (Grant Agreement no. 730052)
Author/s and affiliations: Laura Wendling1, Ville Rinta-Hiiro1, Maria Dubovik1, Arto Laikari1, Johannes Jermakka1, Zarrin Fatima1, Malin zu-Castell Rüdenhausen1, Ana Ascenso2, Silvia Coelho2, Ana Isabel Miranda2, Peter Roebeling2, Ricardo Martins2, Rita Mendonça2
1 VTT Technical Research Centre Ltd, P.O. Box 1000 FI-02044 VTT, Finland
2 CESAM – Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Total carbon removed or stored in vegetation
and soil per unit area per unit time Climate Resilience Description and
justification Accounting for C stored in soil and vegetation in an urban area can indicate the condition of natural green spaces, total free surface area and total quantity of vegetation in the area examined. Measures of C storage and
sequestration also provide a tangible connection to climate change mitigation, and the impacts of local land use, planning and management decision-making. It is important to note the substantial variation in C sequestration and storage capacity of different types of NBS.
Definition Total carbon removed or stored (tonnes/ha/y or similar units)
Strengths and
weaknesses + Quantifying removal and sequestration can give the opportunity to mitigate GHG effects
- Requires other metrics to evaluate the indicator Measurement
procedure and tool
To evaluate C removal or storage per unit area per unit time:
• Determine C storage in vegetation or soil as described in Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation or Carbon storage and sequestration in soil indicators, respectively, for the same area at two different points in time
• Divide each C storage value obtained by the area assessed to determine C storage per unit area
• Subtract the earlier value obtained for C storage and sequestration/unit area from the more recent value, then divide by the length of time between measures to obtain an estimate of C removal or storage per unit area per unit time.
The growth rate of a forest has significant impact on its C storage potential. Forest C sequestration (FCS) is usually estimated as a function of forest area, forest type, and forest age:
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹=�𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟⁄𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟�×𝑁𝑁𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟,𝑖𝑖×𝑁𝑁𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,𝑖𝑖
where FIArate is net forest growth rate for the most common type group in county i, FORESTmean-pct is mean canopy cover percentage for all forested pixels in the county i, NONFmean- pct is mean canopy cover percentage for all non-forest pixels in county i, and NONFarea is area sum of all non-forest pixels in county i. The sum of FCS in both forested and non-forest pixels is the total net FCS by urban and community trees in county i (Zheng, Ducey, & Heath, 2013). Studies have shown that more accurate estimates of FCS are obtained by classifying forests as recently
afforested or mature/remnant forest as tree growth rates vary substantially between these forest types (Smith, Heath, Skog & Birdsey, 2006; Zheng, Heath, Ducey &
Smith, 2011).
Scale of
measurement Plot scale to regional scale Data source
Required data Requires C storage to be determined from either Carbon storage and sequestration in soil or Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation indicators
Data input type Quantitative
Data collection
frequency Annually Level of
expertise required
Low – requires the ability to determine C storage from other metrics and follow the calculation procedure Synergies with
other indicators Requires C storage to be determined from either Carbon storage and sequestration in soil or Carbon storage and sequestration in vegetation indicators
Connection with
SDGs SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities, SDG 13 Climate action
Opportunities for participatory data collection
No opportunities identified
Additional information
References Smith, J.E., Heath, L.S., Skog, K.E., & Birdsey, R.A. (2006).
Methods for Calculating Forest Ecosystem and Harvested Carbon with Standard Estimates for Forest Types of the United States. USDA Forest Service Report GTR-NE-343.
Newtown Square, PA: Northeastern Research Station, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Zheng, D., Ducey, M.J. & Heath, L.S. (2013). Assessing net carbon sequestration on urban and community forests of northern New England, USA. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 12, 61- 68.
Zheng, D., Heath, L.S., Ducey, M.J. & Smith, J.E. (2011). Carbon changes in conterminous US forests associated with growth and major disturbances: 1992–2001. Environmental Research Letters, 6, 014012.
1.2. Avoided greenhouse gas emissions from reduced building energy consumption
Project Name: UNaLab (Grant Agreement no. 730052)
Author/s and affiliations: Laura Wendling1, Ville Rinta-Hiiro1, Maria Dubovik1, Arto Laikari1, Johannes Jermakka1, Zarrin Fatima1, Malin zu-Castell Rüdenhausen1, Ana Ascenso2, Silvia Coelho2, Ana Isabel Miranda2, Peter Roebeling2, Ricardo Martins2, Rita Mendonça2
1 VTT Technical Research Centre Ltd, P.O. Box 1000 FI-02044 VTT, Finland
2 CESAM – Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Avoided CO2 emissions related to building
energy consumption Climate Resilience
Description and
justification Building energy consumption is the fraction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that can be affected by nature- based solutions in an urban environment.
Definition CO2 emissions related to building energy consumption (direct via, e.g., residential combustion and indirect via, e.g., electric heating and cooling) with and without NBS implementation (kWh/y and t C/y saved)
Strengths and
weaknesses + Can be fairly easily measured
+ Indicates changes in building heating and cooling needs - Not sensitive to energy production details
- Analysis can be lacking in accuracy and comparability between different communities and regions
Measurement procedure and tool
First, the community housing energy sources are identified and methods for their quantification on yearly basis are recorded (IPCC, 2006). These energy sources include electrical energy use, as well as supplemental energy sources such as district heating and local combustion for heating. Numerical values for the community as a whole (MWh), as well as population equivalent (MWh/person), are recorded, thus allowing for compensation for population change.
All forms of energy need to be taken into account, including electricity consumption, natural gas or thermal energy for heating and cooling, and fuels.
CO2 emissions related to building energy consumption are calculated as follows:
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
=𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ 𝑎𝑎⁄ )×𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑁𝑁 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2/𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ) 𝐷𝐷𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (%)= 100%−��𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)�× 100%�
