The New World of Ancient Economies, Oxford 2005, S. 92-116
5
INSCRIBED INSTRUMENTA DOMESTICA AND THE ECONOMY OF HELLENISTIC
AND ROMAN CRETE Angelos Chaniotis
1. Introduction
Inscriptions o n pottery, especially a m p h o r a s t a m p s a n d potters' signatures o n clay l a m p s , b u t also tiles, w e i g h t s , a n d the like, w h i c h g i v e u s the n a m e s of p r o d u c e r s , o w n e r s of w o r k s h o p s , o w n e r s of objects, traders, a n d e p o n y m o u s magistrates h a v e l o n g b e e n recognized as a u s e f u l source of i n f o r m a t i o n for the s t u d y of e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n a n d of the circulation of g o o d s . Recent studies h a v e d r a w n attention n o t o n l y to the i m p o r t a n c e of this material, b u t also to the p r o b l e m s of m e t h o d a n d interpretation connected w i t h its use i n e c o n o m i c studies (e.g., H a r r i s 1993; B l o n d e a n d M u l l e r 1998). W h a t h a s e m e r g e d f r o m the relevant d i s c u s s i o n s is the n e e d for detailed regional studies that consider this material i n close c o n n e c t i o n w i t h other e v i d e n c e for e c o n o m i c activities a n d w i t h the general characteristics of local e c o n o m y .
T h i s p a p e r is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the question of h o w the C r e t a n inscribed instrumenta domestica, b o t h those p r o d u c e d i n a n d those i m p o r t e d to Crete, reflect the peculiarities a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of the Cretan e c o n o m y f r o m the Hellenistic to the Imperial period. A l t h o u g h the focus of this s t u d y is o n the Hellenistic e c o n o m y , it w i l l b e necessary to consider in s o m e detail the e v i d e n c e f r o m R o m a n Crete as well. It is the c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the t w o p e r i o d s that a l l o w s a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the character of the e c o n o m y i n Hellenistic Crete.
2. Instrumenta Domestica and the Epigraphic Habit: Questions of Method
T h e starting p o i n t of this s t u d y is the o b s e r v a t i o n that the inscribed i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a are subject to the s a m e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s as those i n v o l v e d i n the s t u d y of the ' e p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' i n g e n e r a l ( C h a n i o t i s 2004). S t u d i e s of e p i g r a p h i c habit(s) h a v e a strong quantitative c o m p o n e n t ; b u t i n order to g i v e m e a n i n g to n u m b e r s , o n e n e e d s to take into consideration v a r i o u s parameters.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t - a n d often least n o t i c e d - is the state of research. In the case
of C r e t e o n e c a n n o t i g n o r e the fact that central C r e t e h a s f o r m a n y d e c a d e s b e e n the o b j e c t of m o r e i n t e n s i v e research t h a n the eastern a n d w e s t e r n p a r t s of the i s l a n d ; t h i s w a s t o s o m e extent d u e to the o r g a n i s a t i o n of the local A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e u n t i l the 1960s, w i t h its seat i n H e r a k l e i o n . It is o n l y i n the last t w e n t y y e a r s t h a t m o r e i n t e n s i v e e x c a v a t i o n a n d s u r v e y w o r k h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n eastern a n d w e s t e r n Crete.
F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e of the o n e - s i d e d interest i n M i n o a n Crete - b u t a l s o d u e t o t h e s t a f f i n g of the local A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Service a n d t h e local M u s e u m s p r i m a r i l y w i t h specialists of the B r o n z e A g e - a large p a r t of the H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s u n p u b l i s h e d . O n e is l u c k y e n o u g h if the d i s c o v e r y of l a m p s a n d a m p h o r a s t a m p s is m e n t i o n e d i n a rather g e n e r a l m a n n e r i n the r e p o r t s i n the Archaiologikon Deltion; b u t a n y o n e w h o h a s w o r k e d i n the local m u s e u m s k n o w s t h a t m o s t o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a a r e n o t o n l y u n - p u b l i s h e d , b u t a l s o n o t r e c o r d e d i n their c a t a l o g u e s . A characteristic e x a m p l e suffices t o s h o w the d i m e n s i o n s of this p r o b l e m . P o l i n a S a p o u n a p u b l i s h e d a c a t a l o g u e o f 342 l a m p s w i t h relief r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o u n d i n t h e s y s t e m a t i c e x c a v a t i o n s of t h e I d a e a n C a v e b e t w e e n 1982 a n d 1986 ( S a p o u n a 1998). I n a n a p p e n d i x s h e p r e s e n t e d m o r e t h a n 100 l a m p s f o u n d i n v a r i o u s other p a r t s o f C r e t e , u s u a l l y d u r i n g s a l v a g e e x c a v a t i o n s , a n d p r e s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s l o c a l m u s e u m s ( S a p o u n a 1998, 175-200; cf. SEG X L V I I I 1202 bis). W i t h a v e r y f e w e x c e p t i o n s , these l a m p s h a d n e v e r b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n a n y r e p o r t a n d m o s t of t h e m d o n o t h a v e a m u s e u m i n v e n t o r y n u m b e r . T h e m a t e r i a l p u b l i s h e d b y S a p o u n a i n c l u d e s 25 l a m p s w i t h s i g n a t u r e s o f t h e w o r k s h o p s o f G a m o s , R o m a n e n s i s , Troilos, a n d Z o s i m o s . If t h i s s e e m s a rather s m a l l n u m b e r , o n e s h o u l d b e r e m i n d e d that u n t i l 1950, w h e n the p u b l i c a t i o n of Inscriptiones Creticae w a s c o m p l e t e d , o n l y 34 i n s c r i b e d l a m p s w e r e k n o w n (see T a b l e 5.1); a n d that i n the f i f t y y e a r s that f o l l o w e d t h i s m a t e r i a l w a s e n r i c h e d o n l y b y a n o t h e r 50 pieces.
T h e state of research e x p l a i n s a l s o the spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n of the e v i d e n c e : the m a t e r i a l f o u n d i n s a n c t u a r i e s , w h i c h are o f t e n the o b j e c t o f s y s t e m a t i c e x c a v a t i o n s , is o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l f o u n d i n settlements, that are o f t e n o n l y the object of rescue e x c a v a t i o n s . L e t m e a g a i n m e n t i o n o n l y t w o e x t r e m e cases. Before the s y s t e m a t i c e x c a v a t i o n of the s a n c t u a r y of Z e u s I d a i o s (the T d a e a n C a v e ' ) o n l y f o u r i n s c r i b e d l a m p s of the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d w e r e k n o w n f r o m this site (I.Cret. L x i i 4 - 7 ) . T h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f J a n n i s S a k e l l a r a k i s i n the y e a r s 1 9 8 2 - 8 6 h a v e a d d e d a n o t h e r 131 p i e c e s (cf. S a p o u n a 1998, 9 4 - 1 1 7 ; SEG X X X V I 813; X L V I I I 1212; C h a n i o t i s 1999c, 296 n. 43). F r o m the city of C h e r s o n e s o s , o n e of the largest s e t t l e m e n t s i n R o m a n C r e t e a n d the object of rescue e x c a v a t i o n s for m o r e t h a n t h i r t y years, o n l y t w o i n s c r i b e d l a m p s are k n o w n (I.Cret. I,vii 2 7 - 8 ) , a n d o n e can o n l y s p e c u l a t e a b o u t t h e m a s s e s of r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l h o a r d e d a n d u n r e c o r d e d i n the M u s e u m o f H e r a k l e i o n . T h e s e e x a m p l e s s h o w t h a t q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s b a s e d o n the m a t e r i a l f r o m C r e t e are at b e s t i n d i c a t i v e , o f t e n m i s l e a d i n g a n d s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e t e l y w r o n g .
B u t t h e p r o b l e m s of m e t h o d n o t o n l y result f r o m these d e f i c i e n c i e s o f m o d e r n
research; t h e y are a l s o i n h e r e n t i n the m a t e r i a l itself. C h a n g e s i n the u s e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a , b o t h l o c a l l y p r o d u c e d a n d i m p o r t e d , are t h e result o f a v a r i e t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t n e e d to b e t a k e n - b u t o f t e n are n o t t a k e n - i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n s t u d i e s t h a t a t t e m p t t o e x p l o i t t h e m as a s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r e c o n o m i c s t u d i e s . A m o n g the factors that i n f l u e n c e the u s e of i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a o n e s h o u l d m e n t i o n s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s , t h e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h w r i t i n g ( H a r r i s 1995), contacts w i t h other r e g i o n s , u n i f o r m i t y o r heterogeneity, a n d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n or t h e i s o l a t i o n of the i s l a n d . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d the s i t u a t i o n i n C r e t e o n e n e e d s t o relate t h e area u n d e r s t u d y t o t h e b r o a d e r p i c t u r e , i.e., t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a i n t h e rest of the H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n w o r l d . W e c a n n o t detect p e c u l i a r i t i e s a n d e v o l u t i o n s i n H e l l e n i s t i c C r e t e if w e l i m i t o u r s e l v e s to a n e n d o s c o p i c a n a l y s i s w h i c h c o n s i d e r s o n l y t h e m a t e r i a l of the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d a n d o n l y t h e C r e t a n m a t e r i a l . W e n e e d to c o m p a r e the s i t u a t i o n i n H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n Crete w i t h that of the H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n w o r l d i n general.
N e i t h e r a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n Crete a n d the rest of the w o r l d , n o r a c o m p l e t e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a f o u n d i n Crete, or of C r e t a n m a t e r i a l f o u n d i n o t h e r areas, c a n b e u n d e r t a k e n i n this paper. B y f o c u s i n g o n a f e w selected e x a m p l e s I w i l l rather a p p r o a c h t h e q u e s t i o n of h o w a s t u d y of this m a t e r i a l c a n m e a n i n g f u l l y b e u s e d f o r t h e s t u d y o f the C r e t a n e c o n o m y .
3. Inscribed Instrumenta Domestica in Hellenistic Crete
T h e i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c Crete represent a large v a r i e r y o f i t e m s , f r o m o w n e r s ' i n s c r i p t i o n s o n p o t t e r y to seals a n d s l i n g bullets.1
L e a v i n g a s i d e texts t h a t are n o t related t o the s t u d y of e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n , a n d i s o l a t e d objects, s u c h as t h e p u b l i c m e a s u r e s (sekomata) i n D r e r o s (SEG X V I I I 392), a n d G o r t y n (I.Cret. I V 251), I w i l l c o n s i d e r h e r e o n l y the larger g r o u p s of i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a : tiles, l o o m w e i g h t s , s t a m p e d a m p h o r a h a n d l e s , i n s c r i p t i o n s o n C r e t a n ' H a d r a v a s e s ' , a n d s l i n g b u l l e t s .
3.1. Tiles
I n s c r i b e d tiles h a v e recently attracted t h e interest of s c h o l a r s w h o s t u d y the o r g a n i s a t i o n of p o t t e r y w o r k s h o p s (e.g., D o u l g e r i - I n t z e s i l o g l o u 1998; D e b i d o u r 1998; I n t z e s i l o g l o u 2000; Billot 2000). T h e p u b l i s h e d C r e t a n m a t e r i a l is n o t s o a b u n d a n t as to a l l o w a n y statistical a n a l y s i s ; i n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m , s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t s p r o v i d e n o i n f o r m a t i o n o n w h e t h e r a n i n s c r i p t i o n w a s s t a m p e d o r e n g r a v e d o n the tile b e f o r e f i r i n g b y t h e p r o d u c e r , or w a s e n g r a v e d after f i r i n g b y a d e d i c a t o r . T h i s is, for e x a m p l e , t h e case w i t h s o m e of the tiles f o u n d i n the s a n c t u a r y at S i m i V i a n n o u . T h e c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n f r o m this m a t e r i a l are, therefore, a n y t h i n g b u t f i r m .
I n C r e t e , i n s c r i b e d tiles h a v e p r i m a r i l y b e e n f o u n d i n sanctuaries.2 T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s c o n s i s t o f e t h n i c s , p e r s o n a l n a m e s , n a m e s o f d i v i n i t i e s , a n d m o n o g r a m s . E v e n w h e n these texts are n o t a b b r e v i a t e d or f r a g m e n t a r y , t h e y are still d i f f i c u l t to interpret. T h e e t h n i c n a m e s r e c o g n i z e d o n tiles p r o b a b l y refer to the cities that s p o n s o r e d the b u i l d i n g activities;3 o n e m a y a s s u m e that t h e y w e r e p r o d u c e d b y p r i v a t e w o r k s h o p s f o r p u b l i c b u i l d i n g projects. T h e t h e o n y m s , o c c a s i o n a l l y c o m b i n e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l n a m e , d e s i g n a t e t h e d i v i n i t i e s f o r w h i c h the b u i l d i n g s w e r e constructed.4 T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p e r s o n a l n a m e s is i n m o s t cases a m a t t e r of faith.5 O n l y w h e n the n a m e is p a r t of a d a t i n g f o r m u l a (epi + g e n i t i v e ) , as i n K o r k y r a (IG I X 121 0 7 1 - 1 1 3 6 ) , m a y w e b e s u r e that w e are d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n a m e of a magistrate. I n all o t h e r cases t h e n a m e s i n the g e n i t i v e or in the n o m i n a t i v e m a y b e l o n g to the o w n e r s o f w o r k s h o p s o r to the p o t t e r s w h o p r o d u c e d the tiles, to the p r i v a t e p e r s o n s w h o s p o n s o r e d a b u i l d i n g o r to the m a g i s t r a t e s w h o w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for the project.6 O n l y i n o n e case w e c a n safely i d e n t i f y t h e i n d i v i d u a l n a m e d o n tiles f o u n d i n the A s k l e p i e i o n of L a s s a i a ( Z e n a s , s o n of A p o l l o n i o s ) w i t h a m a n k n o w n to h a v e s e r v e d as a n a g o r a n o m o s i n G o r t y n , i.e., i n t h e city w h i c h c o n t r o l l e d this s a n c t u a r y ( C h a n i o t i s 2000). B u t e v e n i n this case w e d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r Z e n a s carried o u t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n activities at the A s k l e p i e i o n of L a s a i a as a p r i v a t e s p o n s o r or as p a r t o f h i s d u t i e s as a G o r t y n i a n magistrate,7 since the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the tile d o e s n o t m e n t i o n h i s office.
P r i v a t e l y s p o n s o r e d b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s are n o t e n t i r e l y a b s e n t i n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete. T h e restoration of a t e m p l e a n d its roof i n O l o u s w a s , e.g., u n d e r p u b l i c s u p e r v i s i o n , b u t t h e f u n d s w e r e p r o v i d e d b y a p r i v a t e choregos; a n o t h e r s h r i n e i n the s a m e city w a s d e d i c a t e d b y a p r i v a t e p e r s o n (I.Cret. I,xxii 8 - 9 ) . A l s o the n a m e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w r i t t e n (after f i r i n g ? ) o n tiles f o u n d i n the s a n c t u a r y of H e r m e s K e d r i t e s i n S i m i V i a n n o u s e e m to b e l o n g to p r i v a t e dedicators;8 a n i n s c r i p t i o n attests the d e d i c a t i o n of a s h r i n e to H e r m e s K e d r i t e s b y a certain N i k a n o r i n this s a n c t u a r y (SEG X X V I 1046).
N o n e t h e l e s s , m o s t of the e v i d e n c e f o r b u i l d i n g projects i n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete refers t o public projects.9 O f c o u r s e , this m a y b e d u e to the n a t u r e of the e v i d e n c e , w h i c h i n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete is p r e d o m i n a n t l y p u b l i c . Since e v i d e n c e f o r p r i v a t e b e n e f a c t o r s is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g , it is safer t o a s s u m e that m o s t o f the i n s c r i b e d tiles w e r e d e s t i n e d to b e u s e d i n b u i l d i n g s b u i l t w i t h p u b l i c f u n d s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e i n s c r i b e d tiles of H e l l e n i s t i c C r e t e offer u s n o i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the o r g a n i s a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n .
3.2. Loom weights
T h i n g s are m o r e clear i n the case of the n u m e r o u s l o o m weights.1 0 T h e y are f o u n d i n p r i v a t e h o u s e s , g r a v e s a n d sanctuaries, i n the latter case o b v i o u s l y as d e d i c a t i o n s of. their o w n e r s ( C h a n i o t i s 1992, 320). W h e n t h e y are n o t i n s c r i b e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l letters ( n u m e r a l s or a b b r e v i a t e d names),1 1 t h e y bear p e r s o n a l n a m e s , u s u a l l y the n a m e s of w o m e n .1 2 W e m a y s a f e l y a s s u m e that these w o m e n w e r e t h e o w n e r s o f the l o o m s .
I n p o s t - M i n o a n t i m e s w o o l - w e a v i n g is k n o w n m a i n l y as a n o c c u p a t i o n of w o m e n . T h i s c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m l e g a l texts referring to t h e i t e m s w o v e n b y w o m e n , f r o m e p i g r a m s a n d t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of g r a v e m o n u m e n t s ( C h a n i o t i s 1999b, 2 0 6 - 7 ) . I n C l a s s i c a l a n d H e l l e n i s t i c Crete, w o o l - w e a v i n g b a s i c a l l y c o v e r e d t h e n e e d s o f t h e h o u s e h o l d a n d w a s n o t - at least n o t p r i m a r i l y - i n t e n d e d for sale o r e x p o r t . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x p o r t o f w o o l p r o d u c t s to o t h e r p a r t s o f G r e e c e b e f o r e R o m a n t i m e s . T h e m e n t i o n of t y p i c a l C r e t a n g a r m e n t s , s u c h as t h e esthema a n d C r e t a n mandye ( P o l l u x , Onomasticon v i i 60, II p . 6 9 . 3 - 6 a n d v i i 77, II p . 7 3 . 2 7 - 8 e d . B e t h e ) , p r o v e the k n o w l e d g e o t h e r G r e e k s h a d o f C r e t a n textiles, b u t d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y attest e x p o r t s o n a large scale.
I n t h e C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d t h e c l a u s e s o f t h e great legal i n s c r i p t i o n o f G o r t y n c o n f i r m t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h i s a c t i v i t y r e m a i n e d i n t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e r e l e v a n t c l a u s e s p r o v i d e d that t h e d i v o r c e d w o m a n a n d the c h i l d l e s s w i d o w r e c e i v e d 'half o f w h a t e v e r s h e h a s w o v e n ' ; s i m i l a r l y , if a w i f e d i e d c h i l d l e s s , 'half o f w h a t e v e r s h e h a s w o v e n ' w a s t o b e r e t u r n e d to h e r heirs (I.Cret. I V 72 col. I I 4 5 - 5 4 , col. I l l 2 4 - 3 0 , 3 1 - 7 ; cf. K o e r n e r 1993, 475). T h e l a w k n o w s n o t h i n g a b o u t a n i n c o m e d e r i v i n g f r o m the w e a v i n g a c t i v i t y of the w o m e n , a l t h o u g h it t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the i n c o m e w o m e n m i g h t h a v e a t t a i n e d f r o m their o t h e r p r o p e r t y ( l a n d a n d l i v e s t o c k ) . I n C l a s s i c a l G o r t y n , textile p r o d u c t i o n w a s o b v i o u s l y n o t m e a n t f o r trade. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e lack a n a l o g o u s d o c u - m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c Crete.
S i n c e the a n n u a l n e e d o f w o o l for c l o t h i n g p r o b a b l y d i d n o t e x c e e d t w o or three k g p e r p e r s o n , i.e., a n a m o u n t of w o o l w h i c h c o u l d b e p r o d u c e d b y f o u r or f i v e s h e e p ( H a l s t e a d 1981, 3 2 7 - 9 ) , the w o o l - w e a v i n g p r a c t i s e d i n the h o u s e h o l d d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e s u p p o s e a s p e c i a l i z e d p a s t o r a l i s m . T h i n g s m a y h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t i n s o m e p a r t s o f C r e t e w h e r e s h e p h e r d i n g o c c u p i e d a m o r e p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n ( C h a n i o t i s 1999b, 206). T h e p r o d u c t s o f a t h i r d - c e n t u r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t f o r t h e d y e i n g a n d w e a v i n g of w o o l at K o l o n n a i n L a s i t h i p e r h a p s d i d n o t j u s t c o v e r t h e n e e d s of a n i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o l d ( W a t r o u s 1982, 22), a n d t h i s p r o b a b l y h o l d s t r u e f o r t h e textiles p r o d u c e d i n a H e l l e n i s t i c h o u s e i n E l e u t h e r n a , w h e r e a great n u m b e r of l o o m w e i g h t s w a s f o u n d ( T s i g o u n a k i 1994, 158-67). 345 l o o m w e i g h t s w e r e u n e a r t h e d i n a s i n g l e h o u s e , as c o m p a r e d , e.g., t o a total o f 793 l o o m w e i g h t s f o u n d i n t h e entire city of O l y n t h o s ( s i x t h - f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) a n d 656 l o o m w e i g h t s i n the ' U n e x p l o r e d M a n s i o n ' i n K n o s s o s (tenth c e n t u r y B C - t h i r d c e n t u r y A D ) . I n s o m e p a r t s of C r e t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the u p l a n d s , i n certain p e r i o d s a n d u n d e r certain c o n d i t i o n s , s h e p h e r d i n g a n d related activities t o o k t h e f o r m of a s p e c i a l i z e d t r a d e w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e d f o r the lack o f other r e s o u r c e s (e.g., a r a b l e l a n d ) ; the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s e e m s to h a v e b e e n s u c h a p e r i o d o f m o r e i n t e n s i v e s p e c i a l i s e d p a s t o r a l i s m i n certain r e g i o n s o f C r e t e ( C h a n i o t i s 1999b, 197-205). T h e i n s c r i b e d l o o m w e i g h t s attest the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e textile p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o l d s a n d i n s o m e cases (e.g., i n E l e u t h e r n a ) f o r trade.
3.3. Amphora stamps
T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of a m p h o r a s t a m p s t o the s t u d y of H e l l e n i s t i c e c o n o m y d o e s n o t n e e d to b e u n d e r l i n e d here. R e c e n t s t u d i e s o n the c h r o n o l o g y , the m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of R h o d i a n a n d T h a s i a n w i n e a m p h o r a s , b u t a l s o o n the p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , h a v e g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d the a w a r e n e s s of the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n the e x p l o i t a t i o n of a m p h o r a s t a m p s for e c o n o m i c s t u d i e s ( G a b r i e l s e n 1997, 6 4 - 7 1 ; D e b i d o u r 1998, 5 9 1 - 6 0 6 ; D e b i d o u r 1999, 3 0 7 - 2 1 ; B o z k o v a 1999, 3 2 3 - 3 5 ; R a u h 1999; L u n d 1999; G a r l a n 1999a; G a r l a n 1999b; G a r l a n 2000; F i n k i e l s z t e j n 2001;
L a w a l l , this v o l u m e ) . I n the f o l l o w i n g s h o r t o v e r v i e w I w i l l d i s c u s s the f o r e i g n a m p h o r a s f o u n d i n Crete a n d the C r e t a n a m p h o r a s separately.
Foreign amphoras on Crete
C o m p a r e d to the m a t e r i a l k n o w n f r o m other areas o f H e l l e n i s t i c G r e e c e a n d A s i a M i n o r t h e n u m b e r of p u b l i s h e d s t a m p e d a m p h o r a s of Crete is v e r y l i m i t e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e m a y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e c u r r e n t state of research: P a u l a P e r l m a n p u b l i s h e d i n 1999 a u s e f u l list of 44 s t a m p e d R h o d i a n a m p h o r a h a n d l e s f r o m Crete, i n c l u d i n g f i v e i n e d i t a f r o m L e u k e a n d X e r o k a m b o s (SEG X L I X 1243 a n d 1251); the p u b l i c a t i o n of a s i n g l e e x c a v a t i o n i n T r y p i t o s i n 2000 a l m o s t d o u b l e d this m a t e r i a l b y a d d i n g a n o t h e r 38 p i e c e s ( P a p a d a k i s 2000, 115-121 n o s . 5 - 1 7 , 1 9 - 4 3 ; SEG L 938-983). F u r t h e r s t a m p s h a v e n o w b e c o m e k n o w n f r o m K o m m o s ( C s a p o , G e a g a n , a n d J o h n s t o n 2 0 0 0 , 1 3 1 n o s . 9 2 ^ ) a n d K n o s s o s (SEG X L I X 1 2 3 6 - 7). T h e l i m i t e d statistical v a l u e of P e r l m a n ' s list - a n d o f the m a t e r i a l h i t h e r t o p u b l i s h e d , i n g e n e r a l - is s o e v i d e n t t h a t n o f u r t h e r c o m m e n t is necessary. I w i l l return to the c o n c l u s i o n s that P a u l a P e r l m a n a t t e m p t e d to d r a w f r o m this material later. It s h o u l d b e a d d e d that b e s i d e s t h e R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s , w e m a y infer f r o m p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s that a m p h o r a s t a m p s f r o m m a n y other areas h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete: f r o m C h i o s , K o r i n t h , Italy, K n i d o s , K o s , M e n d e , P e p a r e t h o s a n d Thasos.1 3
P a u l a P e r l m a n h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o the e v i d e n c e p r o v i d e d b y the R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s f o u n d o n Crete ( P e r l m a n 1999, 151), a s s o c i a t i n g this material w i t h the t r a d e interests of R h o d e s . S h e h a s o b s e r v e d a ' c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the r e g i o n s of R h o d i a n interest o n C r e t e a n d the r e g i o n s w h e r e there is e v i d e n c e f o r f o r e i g n trade, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h E g y p t ' (i.e., t h e eastern e n d of the i s l a n d , the s o u t h coast, a n d the n o r t h - s o u t h c o r r i d o r f r o m K n o s s o s to M e s a r a ) . P e r l m a n is c e r t a i n l y r i g h t w h e n she stresses the n e e d o f s t u d y i n g the R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s , b u t I see a series of p r o b l e m s w i t h h e r c o n c l u s i o n s , the less s e r i o u s b e i n g t h e f a c t t h a t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n e v i d e n c e t h a t is s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t . I s h o u l d u n d e r l i n e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s . First, P e r l m a n c o n s i d e r e d the R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s f o u n d o n C r e t e i n i s o l a t i o n ; h o w e v e r , if w e p l a c e t h e less t h a n 100 R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s h i t h e r t o k n o w n f r o m Crete i n the c o n t e x t of the g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s of d i s t r i b u t i o n o f R h o d i a n w i n e a m p h o r a s i n the E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n (cf. L u n d 1999; R a u h 1999), t h e y s e e m e n t i r e l y
i n a d e q u a t e for a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e e c o n o m i c strategy o f R h o d e s . J u s t for t h e s a k e of c o m p a r i s o n I n o t e that a s i n g l e e x c a v a t i o n i n the a g o r a of T h e s s a l o n i k e h a s y i e l d e d 60 R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s , a l m o s t as m a n y as t h e w h o l e of Crete (SEG X L V I I I 865).14 T h e s e c o n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m is the fact that P e r l m a n d i s c u s s e d t h e R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m the a m p h o r a s f r o m other w i n e p r o d u c i n g centres that h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r s i n Crete (see n o t e 13). For i n s t a n c e , i n T r y p i t o s (near Seteia), f r o m w h e r e w e h a v e a r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e d f i n d o f 64 a m p h o r a s t a m p s of the t h i r d c e n t u r y B C ( P a p a d a k i s 2000), t w o t h i r d s are f r o m R h o d e s (43), b u t there are a l s o 20 e x a m p l e s f r o m other areas, f o r e x a m p l e K n i d o s (at least f o u r ) , a n d K o s (at least three). T h e s t a m p e d a m p h o r a h a n d l e s f r o m the ' U n e x p l o r e d M a n s i o n ' i n K n o s s o s p r e s e n t a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n : 54 p e r cent o f the s t a m p s are R h o d i a n , t h e rest of the m a t e r i a l represents a w i d e r a n g e of p r o v e n a n c e s ( K o r i n t h , T h a s o s , K n i d o s , a n d Italy; Sackett, G r a c e et alii 1992, 138-41). T h e r e is a t h i r d p r o b l e m : as I w i l l a t t e m p t to d e m o n s t r a t e later ( § 5), e v i d e n c e f o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h P t o l e m a i c E g y p t d o e s n o t e q u a l e v i d e n c e f o r trade w i t h E g y p t .
P a u l a P e r l m a n ' s a c h i e v e m e n t is t o h a v e d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o a m a t e r i a l that h a s b e e n i g n o r e d i n s t u d i e s o f the C r e t a n e c o n o m y . B u t s o u n d c o n c l u s i o n s o n the e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s o f R h o d e s w i t h C r e t e r e q u i r e t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a m u c h w i d e r c o n t e x t . O n e n e e d s a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y w h i c h w i l l c o n s i d e r b o t h the d i f f u s i o n of R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s i n the A e g e a n a n d the p r e s e n c e of a m p h o r a s of o t h e r o r i g i n s i n Crete. T h e m a t e r i a l h i t h e r t o p u b l i s h e d is still i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r s u c h a s t u d y . T h e p r e s e n c e of R h o d i a n a m p h o r a s o n C r e t e a l o n e c a n n o t b e t a k e n as e v i d e n c e o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n s i v e e x p o r t of R h o d i a n w i n e to Crete - m o r e i n t e n s i v e t h a n t h a t t o o t h e r areas.
C r e t e w a s u n d o u b t e d l y p a r t of the R h o d i a n strategy, b u t p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e of the R h o d i a n c l a i m to a h e g e m o n i c p o s i t i o n i n the s o u t h - e a s t e r n A e g e a n , as H a n s - U l r i c h W i e m e r h a s r e c e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e d ( W i e m e r 2002a, 174-6), b e c a u s e o f C r e t e ' s g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n o n t h e t r a d e r o u t e s ( V i v i e r s 1999, 2 2 8 - 9 ) , a n d b e c a u s e of the v e r y clear a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r s c a u s e d b y C r e t a n pirates, w h i c h are n e i t h e r a m o d e r n i n v e n t i o n n o r the result of ' e t h n i c stereotyping'.1 5
Cretan amphoras
A n a l o g o u s c a u t i o n is n e c e s s a r y w i t h r e g a r d to C r e t a n a m p h o r a s , the i m p o r t a n c e of w h i c h h a s also b e e n o v e r e s t i m a t e d b y P e r l m a n (1999, 147). L o c a l l y p r o d u c e d a m p h o r a s w i t h s t a m p s or d i p i n t i are a l m o s t e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g (cf. n o t e 2), w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f a b o u t t e n h a n d l e s of w i n e a m p h o r a s p r o d u c e d i n H i e r a p y t n a i n the t h i r d c e n t u r y B C ( M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1 9 9 5 , 1 2 2 - 3 ) . S e v e n pieces h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d s o far: six h a n d l e s s t a m p e d w i t h the seal of S o s o s of H i e r a p y t n a - f i v e of t h e m f o u n d i n A l e x a n d r i a (SEG X L I I 805; M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 123 E l a n d E3) a n d a n o t h e r p i e c e f o u n d at T r y p i t o s o n C r e t e (SEG X L V I I 1410) - a n d a n a m p h o r a s t a m p w i t h the a b b r e v i a t e d e t h n i c Hierapytnion a l s o f o u n d at A l e x a n d r i a (SEG X L I I 805). S o s o s ' n a m e a p p e a r s b o t h i n t h e g e n i t i v e ( w i t h o u t epi) a n d i n the
n o m i n a t i v e ; h e w a s either a n e p o n y m o u s m a g i s t r a t e o r ( m o r e p r o b a b l y ) the o w n e r of a p o t t e r y w o r k s h o p . T h e six H i e r a p y t n i a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s i n E g y p t c a n n o t b e s e r i o u s l y t a k e n a s e v i d e n c e f o r w i n e trade. A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the t h o u s a n d s of a m p h o r a s t a m p s of R h o d o s , T h a s o s , a n d K n i d o s a n d the h u n d r e d s of the s t a m p s of o t h e r p r o d u c e r s of w i n e (e.g., C h i o s , S i n o p e , C h e r s o n e s o s , the T a r m e n i s k o s g r o u p ' , etc.) is d e v a s t a t i n g . Six o r e v e n six h u n d r e d a m p h o r a s filled w i t h C r e t a n w i n e c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e f o u n d their w a y f r o m C r e t e to E g y p t a b o a r d the s h i p s w h i c h c o n t i n u a l l y b r o u g h t C r e t a n m e r c e n a r i e s to the k i n g d o m of the P t o l e m i e s f o r m o r e t h a n 150 years.1 6
T h e s e a m p h o r a s w e r e p r o d u c e d i n a short p e r i o d of t i m e , p o s s i b l y i n a s i n g l e year, p e r h a p s f o r a s i n g l e s h i p m e n t . A l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of a m p h o r a s is b y n o m e a n s a n e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e . W e k n o w of s e v e r a l o t h e r
H e l l e n i s t i c cities w i t h a v e r y l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s t a m p e d a m p h o r a s , u s u a l l y f o u n d i n the i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y of the city: e.g., H e p h a i s t i a o n L e m n o s (SEG X L V I I 1329), M a r o n e i a i n T h r a c e (SEG X L V I I 1066), P y d n a i n M a c e d o n i a (SEG X L I X 763), O u r a n o p o l i s i n the C h a l k i d i k e (SEG X L V I I I 813), a n d the i s l a n d of I k o s (SEG X L V I I I 1185).
I n a d d i t i o n t o the H i e r a p y t n i a n a m p h o r a s o n e s h o u l d m e n t i o n t r a d e m a r k s o n a n a m p h o r a f o u n d at K o m m o s ( C s a p o , G e a g a n a a n d J o h n s t o n 2000, 132 n o . 95) a n d a w i n e a m p h o r a w i t h the n a m e E n i p a s i n the d a t i v e (inscribed b e f o r e f i r i n g ) f o u n d at L a t o (SEG X X V I I 630; cf. L G P N I, s.v.). T h e n a m e i n the d a t i v e o b v i o u s l y d e s i g n a t e s the w i n e p u r c h a s e r ('for E n i p a s ' ) .
T h e l i m i t e d e v i d e n c e f o r C r e t a n a m p h o r a s t a m p s c o n f i r m s w h a t A n t i g o n e M a r a n g o u h a s e s t i m a t e d w i t h regard to C r e t a n w i n e p r o d u c t i o n i n the H e l l e n i s t i c A g e ( M a r a n g o u 1999, 2 6 9 - 7 0 ) . S h e h a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t C r e t e e n j o y e d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h m o d e s t w i n e - p r o d u c i n g facilities. T h i s t y p e of o r g a n i s a t i o n c a n b e illustrated b y the r e m a i n s of a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i n s t a l l a t i o n of the t h i r d c e n t u r y B C o n the territory of A p o l l o n i a (the p r e s e n t A g i a Pelagia). It w a s c o m p o s e d of s t o r e s f o r s t o c k i n g w i n e a n d a s m a l l f u l l i n g m i l l o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 m2
( M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 6 1 - 3 ; M a r a n g o u 1999, 270). A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m K y d o n i a d a t e d t o the t h i r d c e n t u r y B C i n f o r m s u s o f areas o c c u p i e d b y v i n e y a r d s . T h e p l o t s m e n t i o n e d r a n g e f r o m 0.17 to 2 h a . a n d p r o d u c t i o n m a y b e e s t i m a t e d at a b o u t 3 h i f o r s m a l l parcels of l a n d a n d at a b o u t 40 h i for t h e largest (I.Cret. II,x 1; C h a n i o t i s 1988a, 8 2 - 3 ; M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1 9 9 5 , 1 1 - 3 ; M a r a n g o u 1999,270). C r e t a n w i n e h a r d l y f i n d s a n y m e n t i o n i n the a n c i e n t literary s o u r c e s of the Classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ( M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 9 - 1 0 , 13), as o p p o s e d to the m a n y references i n the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ( § 4.1). A s i n g l e w o r k s h o p p r o d u c i n g w i n e a m p h o r a s i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d s o far ( K e r a t o k a m b o s ) , as o p p o s e d to the s e v e n t e e n w o r k s h o p s k n o w n to h a v e o p e r a t e d i n the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ( M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 3 5 - 6 0 ; cf. P o r t a l e a n d R o m e o 2001, 2 6 4 - 6 , w i t h r e g a r d t o the l i m i t e d n u m b e r of C r e t a n a m p h o r a s i n H e l l e n i s t i c G o r t y n ) ; its p r o d u c t s are o n l y k n o w n f r o m the site o f p r o d u c t i o n ( M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 6 7 - 8). C r e t a n w i n e w a s c e r t a i n l y a n object of t r a d e w i t h i n the i s l a n d a n d it w a s
o c c a s i o n a l l y e x p o r t e d , b u t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s t h e a s s u m p t i o n that v i t i c u l t u r e e s s e n t i a l l y r e s p o n d e d to local n e e d s .
3.4. Hadra vases
T h e ' H a d r a v a s e s ' are t h e o n l y i d e n t i f i a b l e p r o d u c t of C r e t a n m a n u f a c t u r e e x p o r t e d i n large q u a n t i t i e s a n d certainly o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t s of C r e t a n p o t t e r y i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ( G u e r r i n i 1964; C a l l a g h a n 1984; C o o k 1984; L a R o s a 1984; C a l l a g h a n a n d J o n e s 1985; E n k l a a r 1986; G i a n n i k o u r i 1 9 9 6 / 97; M a n g o u 1997, 1 4 9 - 5 0 ; Z e r v o u d a k i 1997; C h a n i o t i s 1999b, 184; P e r l m a n 1999, 147; P o r t a l e 2000). T h i s p o t t e r y g r o u p o w e s i t s n a m e t o a c e m e t e r y n e a r A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e t h e s e v a s e s w e r e u s e d a s f u n e r a r y u r n s , p r i m a r i l y f o r f o r e i g n e r s ( E n k l a a r 1998, 1 8 - 9 ; cf. SEG X X X V I I I 1680). C r e t a n H a d r a h y d r i a e h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n Crete ( G o r t y n , I t a n o s , K o m m o s , K n o s s o s , a n d P h a i s t o s ) , Eretria, E g y p t , a n d R h o d e s ; K n o s s o s a n d P h a i s t o s s e e m to h a v e b e e n t h e m a i n centers o f p r o d u c t i o n i n the t h i r d a n d s e c o n d century.
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the e x p o r t of C r e t a n ' H a d r a v a s e s ' to the i s l a n d ' s e c o n o m y s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r e s t i m a t e d as e v i d e n c e f o r a ' C r e t o - E g y p t i a n t r a d i n g n e t w o r k ' ( P e r l m a n 1999, 147). V a s e s a r e k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t t o E g y p t b y m e r c e n a r i e s - e.g., p r i z e v a s e s w i t h f i g u r e d d e c o r a t i o n ( C a l l a g h a n 1980, 35).
S o m e of t h e C r e t a n s w h o s e a s h e s w e r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e H a d r a v a s e s are e x p l i c i t l y i d e n t i f i e d as e n v o y s o r h o s t a g e s (SEG X L V I I I 1973; C o o k 1966, 8 A 7). It is
c o n c e i v a b l e that t h i s w a r e r e a c h e d A l e x a n d r i a a n d Eretria a b o a r d the s a m e s h i p s , w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e t h o u s a n d s of C r e t a n m e r c e n a r i e s w h o s e r v e d i n t h e P t o l e m a i c a r m y ( n o t e 15) a n d t h e s o l d i e r s w h o are k n o w n to h a v e s e r v e d i n the M a c e d o n i a n g a r r i s o n of Eretria ( C h a n i o t i s 1996, 27 n . 118). T h e s a m e e x p l a n a t i o n h a s b e e n o f f e r e d f o r the C r e t a n H a d r a v a s e s f o u n d i n the H e l l e n i s t i c c e m e t e r y of R h o d e s ( G i a n n i k o u r i : 1 9 9 6 / 9 7 , 251). A n o t h e r g r o u p o f C r e t a n p o t s h a d t h e s a m e d e s t i n a t i o n : a m p h o r a s d e c o r a t e d w i t h relief e m b l e m s ( ' P l a k e t t e n v a s e n ' ) , p r o b a b l y p r o d u c e d i n w e s t C r e t e ( G e o r g i a d o u 1994, 146; M a r k o u l a k i 1997).
T o t h e best of m y k n o w l e d g e , this p o t t e r y w a s e x p o r t e d f r o m C r e t e o n l y to p l a c e s w h e r e C r e t a n mercenaries s e r v e d (Eretria, E g y p t , R h o d e s ) . It therefore s e e m s p l a u s i b l e to associate these e x p o r t s w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y relations of C r e t e . O f c o u r s e , f u r t h e r s t u d i e s o n t h i s m a t e r i a l a n d o n t h e c e n t e r s o f
p r o d u c t i o n m a y c h a n g e this i m p r e s s i o n .
3.5. Sling bullets
W a r w a s o n e o f t h e m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n s of the C r e t a n s i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . W h e n t h e y w e r e n o t i n v o l v e d i n their i s l a n d i n o n e of the c o u n t l e s s m i n o r a n d m a j o r m i l i t a r y c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n their cities ( C h a n i o t i s 1996, 2 7 - 5 6 ) , t h e y w e r e s e r v i n g as m e r c e n a r i e s i n f o r e i g n a r m i e s ( P e t r o p o u l o u 1985, 2 3 - 3 1 ; L a u n e y 1987, 2 4 8 - 2 8 6 ) . It is, t h e r e f o r e , n o t s u r p r i s i n g if l e a d s l i n g b u l l e t s , s o m e o f t h e m
i n s c r i b e d , are o n e of the largest g r o u p s of ' s t a n d a r d i s e d p r o d u c t s ' i n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete. T h e y h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n s e v e r a l sites ( K n o s s o s , L a p p a , L a t o , P r i n i a s , Seteia). T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s c o n s i s t of a b b r e v i a t e d e t h n i c a ( K n o s i o n : I.Cret. L v i i i 4 3 - 5; G o r t y n i o n : I.Cret. I , x v i 12; L x x v i i i 28) a n d p e r s o n a l n a m e s ( A i n e . : SEG X X X V n o . 1; K l e a n d r o u : I.Cret. L v i i i 4 6 - 7 ; cf. Pritchett 1991, 47; M e . : I.Cret. I I , x x i v 24;
Pa.: I.Cret. II,xxx 17; S y l a d a : I.Cret. I I , x x x 16). T h e text A I N E o n three s l i n g b u l l e t s f o u n d i n eastern C r e t e (I.Cret. IILi 6; SEG X X X V 994 n o . 1) h a s b e e n interpreted as a f o r m o f the v e r b cxivco ( ' w i n n o w ' ) o r o f the a d j e c t i v e a i v o i ; ('terrible'), b u t a n a b b r e v i a t e d p e r s o n a l n a m e s e e m s t o m e m o r e p r o b a b l e (e.g., A i n e a s , A i n e i a s , a n d A i n e t o s , all o f t h e m attested i n Crete). T h e s a m e a p p l i e s to the text M O P A , t e n t a t i v e l y r e a d o n a s l i n g b u l l e t f r o m eastern Crete (SEG X X X V 994; cf. the n a m e M o r a n d r o s ) .
4. Instrumenta Domestica in Roman Crete
T h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f the C r e t a n e c o n o m y i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d b e c o m e e v i d e n t w h e n w e c o m p a r e the H e l l e n i s t i c e v i d e n c e w i t h t h a t o f R o m a n Crete (c. 50 B C - c . A D 250). It is o n l y f r o m the late first c e n t u r y B.C. o n w a r d s t h a t w e h a v e e v i d e n c e f o r a s p e c i a l i z e d p r o d u c t i o n , f o r s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n a n d for a m a s s e x p o r t of local p r o d u c t s , e s p e c i a l l y o f w i n e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t y p e s of i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a a l r e a d y k n o w n f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c Crete, s u c h as l o o m weights,1 7 tiles ( § 4.2), a n d i n s c r i b e d vases,1 8 i n R o m a n C r e t e w e o b s e r v e a larger v a r i e t y of i t e m s , e.g., w a t e r p i p e s ( § 4.3), p o t t e r y w i t h s t a m p e d signatures,1 9 r i n g s (I.Cret. I , x v 5;
SEG X X X I V 923; X L V I I I 1228 bis), g e m s (I.Cret. I,v 3; I I , x v i 32), seals (I.Cret.
I L x x i v 25; I I , x x x 15; B o w s k y 1999, 323 n o . 61), w e i g h t s (I.Cret. L x i 5), a b e a u t y case o r m i r r o r (SEG X L 774), a n d a r o u n d e l (SEG X X X I I 893).
T h e s e objects reflect a c h a n g e i n t h e e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o u r of the C r e t a n s , a s t r o n g e r i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e t r a d e n e t w o r k s o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a m o r e d y n a m i c d e v e l o p m e n t of local p r o d u c t i o n , specialisation, a n d p r o d u c t i o n a i m i n g at e x p o r t s . I w i l l d i s c u s s here the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u p s , v i z . w i n e a m p h o r a s , tiles, w a t e r p i p e s , a n d l a m p s .
4.1. Wine amphoras
A r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n the p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a d e of w i n e c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d i n the existence of i d e n t i f i a b l e centres of p r o d u c t i o n of C r e t a n a m p h o r a s , i n the m a n y references to C r e t a n w i n e i n the literary sources, a n d i n t h e w i d e d i f f u s i o n of C r e t a n a m p h o r a s i n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( C h a n i o t i s 1988a, 7 1 - 8 2 ; M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 1 5 - 2 9 , 3 5 - 6 0 , 6 3 ^ , 6 7 - 9 4 , 9 6 - 1 2 2 , 124-54, 156-60; M a r a n g o u 1999, 2 7 0 - 8 ; P o r t a l e a n d R o m e o 2000). I n the R o m a n p e r i o d w e h a v e n o t just s e v e n , b u t s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s t a m p s a n d p a i n t e d i n s c r i p t i o n s o n C r e t a n a m p h o r a s , f o u n d i n G r e e c e , Italy, G a u l , a n d A f r i c a . T h e texts refer to the t y p e , quality, a n d p r o v e n a n c e
o f t h e w i n e , e.g., f r o m L y t t o s , G o r t y n , K a n t a n o s , a n d A p t e r a ; t h e d i p i n t i d e m o n s t r a t e a certain s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n , as t h e y u s e attributes f o r p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s o f w i n e , s u c h as rubrum, athalassos, anthinos, passon, staphidites
etc. ( C h a n i o t i s 1988a, 7 4 - 8 ; M a r a n g o u - L e r a t 1995, 124-54; B o w s k y 1999, 3 1 8 - 2 2 ; cf. SEG X X X I 813; X X X I I I 734; SEG X L V 1244; X L V I I I 1205).20
It is q u i t e p r o b a b l e t h a t a n ' a r c h i v e ' o f c. 90 d o c u m e n t a r y o s t r a k a f r o m C h e r s o n e s o s ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . ) , the o n l y s u c h g r o u p e v e r f o u n d o n Crete, is c o n n e c t e d w i t h w i n e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a d e ( L i t i n a s 1999; SEG X L I X 1218). T h e s e o s t r a k a , f o u n d i n a w e l l , c o m p r i s e t w o g r o u p s . T h e ostraka of the first g r o u p record t r a n s a c t i o n s t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n M a r c h - A p r i l a n d N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r ; t h e d a t i n g f o r m u l a is f o l l o w e d b y a list o f n a m e s i n t h e n o m i n a t i v e (slaves, s m a l l s h o p k e e p e r s , a n d h a w k e r s ? ) ; a m o u n t s o f metretai (a u n i t of v o l u m e for l i q u i d s ) are w r i t t e n n e x t t o e a c h n a m e . I n the o s t r a k a of t h e s e c o n d g r o u p the d a t i n g f o r m u l a (late J u n e - e a r l y J u l y ) is f o l l o w e d b y t w o n a m e s , either i n the n o m i n a t i v e o r i n the d a t i v e ( i m p o r t e r s , w h o l e s a l e r s , a n d m e r c h a n t s ? ) . T h e p r o d u c t s m e a s u r e d d a y b y d a y f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d ( M a r c h - A p r i l , N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r ) w e r e p r o b a b l y w i n e a n d o l i v e o i l ; t h e l a r g e a m o u n t s r e c o r d e d i n d i c a t e e c o n o m i c t r a n s a c t i o n s o n a l a r g e scale.
U n l i k e the s p o r a d i c e v i d e n c e f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c Crete, i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d w e d o n o t h a v e i s o l a t e d i t e m s , b u t a w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n s c r i b e d C r e t a n a m p h o r a s . W e k n o w t h e n a m e s of i n d i v i d u a l s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h i s t r a d e - p r o d u c e r s , traders, a n d m i d d l e m e n ( B o w s k y 1999, 318-22). T h e m a i n features of w i n e p r o d u c t i o n i n R o m a n C r e t e are t h e s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n a n d c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n , m a s s i v e e x p o r t trade, a n d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of the i s l a n d ' s p r o d u c t i o n i n e c o n o m i c n e t w o r k s that e x t e n d e d across the entire empire.2 1
4.2. Tiles
S t a m p e d tiles are a l r e a d y attested i n H e l l e n i s t i c C r e t e , b u t n o w o r k s h o p h a s b e e n h i t h e r t o i d e n t i f i e d ( § 3.1). I n the R o m a n p e r i o d w e m a y i d e n t i f y the p r o d u c t s of a certain L y k o s , s o n of Felix i n G o r t y n (AUKOU Of|ki(KO<;); B o w s k y 1999, 323 n o . 58). T h e s e c o n d n a m e l e a v e s n o d o u b t a b o u t d a t i n g this w o r k s h o p i n the R o m a n p e r i o d , s i n c e the o n l y n a m e s starting w i t h Feli- i n the Lexicon of Greek Personal Names are the n a m e Felix a n d its d e r i v a t i v e s ( P h e l i k i o n etc.). F o u r i n s c r i b e d tiles h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d , all o f t h e m w i t h the s a m e s t a n d a r d i s e d text, i n s c r i b e d b e f o r e f i r i n g . T h e y w e r e f o u n d i n the O d e i o n of G o r t y n (I.Cret. I V 526), i n the s a n c t u a r y of A s k l e p i o s i n L e b e n a (I.Cret. I , x v i i 5 8 - 5 9 ) , a n d n e a r the v i l l a g e of Z a r o s , n o r t h w e s t o f G o r t y n (I.Cret. I , x x x i 10). L y k o s d i d n o t p r o d u c e tiles for a p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t ; h i s p r o d u c t s are q u i t e w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n G o r t y n i a n territory.
T w o t i l e s f o u n d i n t h e O d e i o n o f G o r t y n w e r e p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r w o r k s h o p ; h o w e v e r , t h e s i g n a t u r e of t h e p r o d u c e r is f r a g m e n t a r y (I.Cret. I V 528).
O n a n o t h e r tile, a g a i n f r o m the O d e i o n o f G o r t y n , I t e n t a t i v e l y s u g g e s t r e s t o r i n g
the n a m e E l p i d i a n o s (I.Cret. I V 527, [ m j j u S f i a v o i ) ] ) . E l p i d i a n o s is k n o w n as a p r o d u c e r of c l a y l a m p s i n Crete ( § 4.4), a n d it is t e m p t i n g to associate b o t h the l a m p s a n d the tiles w i t h the s a m e p o t t e r y w o r k s h o p ; h o w e v e r , the restoration is a n y t h i n g b u t certain. Several tiles ( ' f r a g m e n t a n o n n u l l a l a t e r c u l o r u m ' ) b e a r i n g the s a m e s i g n a t u r e (Map., p o s s i b l y a n a b b r e v i a t i o n of McepKou) w e r e f o u n d n e a r the O d e i o n (I.Cret. I V 531).
A tilery u n d e r m u n i c i p a l m a n a g e m e n t (or p r o d u c i n g f o r p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s ) h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n K n o s s o s (Sackett, C o c k i n g et alii 1 9 9 2 , 4 0 9 - 1 0 ) . Its p r o d u c t s , f i n e K o r i n t h i a n tiles, are m a r k e d w i t h t w o s t a m p s : t h e letters C . I . C . ( C o l o n i a Iulia C n o s o s ) a n d the l a b y r i n t h . T h e y can b e d a t e d to t h e first c e n t u r y A . D .
T h e o t h e r i n s c r i b e d tiles of R o m a n C r e t e are, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , e i t h e r t o o f r a g m e n t a r y or t o o l i m i t e d i n n u m b e r s to a l l o w a n y conclusions.2 2 B u t the material k n o w n s o far a l l o w s u s to i d e n t i f y at least three s e p a r a t e w o r k s h o p s i n G o r t y n a n d a n o t h e r o n e i n K n o s s o s .
4.3. Water pipes
C l a y a n d m e t a l d r a i n p i p e s a p p e a r f o r the first t i m e i n R o m a n Crete. M o s t of t h e m are k n o w n o n l y f r o m i s o l a t e d attestations (lead: I.Cret. II, x i v 1; c l a y : I.Cret.
I, x x v i i 4; I V 5 3 5 - 6 ) , b u t o n three p i e c e s o n e r e a d s the s a m e n a m e ( O Y A P O N T O Z ; V a r r o ? ; B o w s k y 1999, 326 n o . 72). M a r t h a W . B a l d w i n B o w s k y h a s t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d this p e r s o n as the o w n e r o f a v i l l a ( B o w s k y 1999, 325), b u t it s e e m s m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h the n a m e of a p r o d u c e r . C l a y p i p e s w i t h this s t a m p h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n R h a u k o s a n d its v i c i n i t y (I.Cret. I , x x v i i 4 a n d SEG X X I I I 531). D r y t o n , w h o s e n a m e is f o u n d o n a l e a d p i p e f r o m H y d r a m i a (I.Cret.
II, x i v 1: acoA.fjvec, Aputcovoc,), m a y h a v e a l s o b e e n a p r o d u c e r as w e l l .
4.4. Lamps
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of w o r k s h o p s , w h i c h h a s o n l y t e n t a t i v e l y b e e n s u g g e s t e d i n the case o f tiles a n d p o s s i b l y o f w a t e r p i p e s , can b e clearly o b s e r v e d i n t h e case o f c l a y l a m p s b e a r i n g the s i g n a t u r e s of w o r k s h o p s . I n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s i g n e d l a m p s are a l r e a d y q u i t e c o m m o n i n o t h e r areas, b u t t h e y are u n k n o w n i n
Signature and number of attestations
Attestations in Crete Provenance
Eutyches (3) I.Cret. I,ii 2 (Chaniotis 1992, 319 no. I
14); two inedita in the Idaean Cave
Corinth (or Athens;
cf. below)
K a r o s ( l ) Martin 1997, 278 no. 36 (SEG X L V I I
1391 no.l)
Corinth
K a r p o s ( 1 ) o n e i n e d i t u m i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e C o r i n t h
L o u k i o s ( 6 ) M a g n e l l i z U u i , O J4 n o . I U ^ D d i u i n i <uiu P a r e l l o 2 0 0 1 , 1 3 6 n o . 3 5 8 ) ; five i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
Pnrinth
M i n i k i o s ( 1 ) C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 3 0 6 L 6 9 0 ( w i t h t h e w r o n g r e a d i n g A I K I O T )
C o r i n t h
O n e s i m o s ( 1 ) o n e i n e d i t u m i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e C o r i n t h
P r e i m o s ( 7 ) I.Cret. I , v i i 2 7 ; I I , v 5 7 ; I I , x i i i 2 2 ; M e r c a n d o 1 9 7 4 , 2 3 7 a n d n o t e 4 0 ( t w o p i e c e s ) ; t w o i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
C o r i n t h
S e k o u n d e i n o s ( 1 ) B r u n e a u 1 9 7 1 , 4 9 2 n o . 5 2 C o r i n t h
S p o s i a n o s ( 3 ) I.Cret. I , x i i 7 ( w i t h w r o n g r e a d i n g : t i r o t e i a n o s ) , c a t l i n g a n a w a n i n g i yyi., J U U L 6 9 6 ; o n e i n e d i t u m from t h e I d e a e a n C a v e
C o r i n t h
Z o s i m o s ( 2 ) S a p o u n a 1 9 9 8 , 1 9 7 n o . 3 2 9 - 3 l e (SEG X L I X 1 2 0 2 b i s ) ; o n e i n e d i t u m i n t h e
C o r i n t h
E l p i d e p n o r o s (1 ) m a i l i n g a n a b a i l i n g 177^., 1 U\J. i ^ u u A t h e n s
K y . ( 1 ) / . e r e / . i i , x x i v z i A t h e n s
E u t y c h e s ( 1 ) C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 3 0 6 n o . L 6 9 5 A t h e n s
L e o n t e u s / P e i r i t h o s ( 2 ) t w o i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e A t h e n s
N e i k a n d r o s ( 1 ) CT/'"1 W V T T ftl o
Shu A A A U ./Amelia
R o m a n e n s i s ( 9 ) J.Cret. l , x i v o , l l , x x x I J , I I I , X I y, s a p o u n a 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 n o . 3 4 7 - 8 b ; C s a p o , G e a g a n , a n d J o h n s t o n 2 0 0 0 , 1 3 2 n o . 9 7 ; f o u r i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
C o m m u n i s ( 1 ) M a r t i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 7 4 n o . 3 0 I t a l y
C e n t u s ( 2 ) t w o i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e G a u l
Table 5.1 Lamps of non-Cretan workshops in Crete
H e l l e n i s t i c Crete; the o n l y e x c e p t i o n is a l a m p p r o d u c e d b y the w o r k s h o p of A r i s t i o n (I.Cret. I I , x x i v 17).23 T h e first s i g n e d m o u l d - m a d e l a m p s m a k e their a p p e a r a n c e after the R o m a n c o n q u e s t , i n the late first c e n t u r y B.C. ( C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1992, 264 n o s . L 6 1 - 2 ) . F r o m R o m a n C r e t e w e k n o w c. 160 s i g n e d l a m p s , a n d f o r the first t i m e w e c a n i d e n t i f y C r e t a n w o r k s h o p s , t h e p r o d u c t s of w h i c h are n o t o n l y w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n the i s l a n d , b u t w e r e also e x p o r t e d to Berenike.
S i g n a t u r e A t t e s t a t i o n s i n C r e t e a n d B e r e n i k e
A r . ( l ) K n o s s o s : C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 2 6 4 L 6 2
G a m o s ( 7 7 ) C r e t e : I.Cret. I . v i i i 4 2 ; I , x i i 6 ; I , x v i 5 4 ; I I , x x i v 1 9 - 2 0 ; I I , x x x 6 ; I I I , i i i 6 1 ; I V 5 4 0- SEG X X X I I 9 0 6 - SFG X X X V 9 8 6 - X X X V T T 754- H a v p « 1Q71- 2 7 3 n o . 5 3 ; C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 2 7 3 n o . L 2 0 8 , 2 8 1 n o . L 3 1 8 , 3 0 6 L 6 9 1 - 3 ( f i v e p i e c e s ) ; M a r t i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 7 8 n o . 3 8 (SEG X L V I I 1 3 9 1 n o . 2 ) ; S a p o u n a 1 9 9 8 , 1 7 5 n o . 4 - 6 a - e , g - h , 1 7 9 n o . 4 4 - 6 a , 1 8 2 n o . 1 0 5 - 6 b , 1 8 3 n o . 1 1 0 - 3 b , 1 8 4 n o . 1 1 8 g , 1 9 0 n o . 1 8 8 - 9 b , 1 9 0 n o . 1 9 0 b , 1 9 3 n o s . 2 7 4 - 5 a a n d f , 1 9 5 n o . 3 1 2 - 3 a, 1 9 6 n o . 3 2 5 - 6 b , 1 9 7 n o s . 3 2 8 - 3 1 b a n d d , 1 9 7 - 8 n o s . 3 3 2 b , e a n d g , p e r h a p s 1 9 1 n o . 2 6 0 - 2 g ( t w e n t y t w o p i e c e s ; c f . SEG X L V I I I 1 2 0 2 b i s ) ; C s a p o , G e a g a n , a n d J o h n s t o n 2 0 0 0 :
1 3 2 n o . 1 0 1 ; B a l d i n i a n d P a r e l l o 2 0 0 1 , 1 2 3 n o . 1 2 7 , 1 2 9 n o . 2 0 4 ; t w e n t y s e v e n i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
B e r e n i k e : B a i l e y 1 9 8 5 , 1 8 3 C 8 4 3 , 8 4 8 - 8 5 0 , 9 1 5 , 9 6 6 , a n d t w o m o r e s h e r d s ( n o t i n t h e c a t a l o g u e )
E l p i d i a n o s ( 7 ) s e v e n i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
K e l e r ( l O ) SEG X X X I X 9 6 3 ; n i n e i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
S e r g i o s ( 9 ) I.Cret. I , x x i i i 3 1 ; I I , x x x 8 9 ; B a l d i n i a n d P a r e l l o 2 0 0 1 , 1 3 0 n o . 2 3 5 ( t o b e r e s t o r e d a s I e [ p y O D] ) ; five i n e d i t a i n t h e I d e a a n C a v e
S y m p h o r o s ( 5 ) five i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
Y O S ( ? , 1 ) K n o s s o s : C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 2 6 4 L 6 5
T r o i l o s ( 1 9 ) I.Cret. I , x i i 4 - 5 ; I I , x v i 3 1 ; I I , x x x 7 ; SEG X X X I I 9 1 1 ; C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 3 0 6 n o . L 6 8 9 ( c o r r e c t e d i n SEG X L V 1 3 0 2 ) ; M a r t i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 7 8 n o . 3 9 (SEG X L V I I 1 3 9 1 n o . 3 ) ; S a p o u n a 1 9 9 8 , 191 n o . 2 6 0 - 2 a ( c f . SEG X L I X 1 2 0 2 b i s ) ; e l e v e n i n e d i t a i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e
Table 5.2 Cretan lamp workshops
I n R o m a n C r e t e w e k n o w p r o d u c t s o f t h e K o r i n t h i a n w o r k s h o p s of E u t y c h e s , K a r o s , K a r p o s , L o u k i o s , M i n i k i o s , O n e s i m o s , P r e i m o s , S e k o u n d e i n o s , S p o s i a n o s , a n d Z o s i m o s , o f t h e A t t i c w o r k s h o p o f E l p i d e p h o r o s , E u t y c h e s , L e o n t e u s / P e i r i t h o s , a n d N e i k a n d r o s , o f t h e ( K n i d i a n ? ) w o r k s h o p o f R o m a n e n s i s , of the Italian w o r k s h o p o f C o m m u n i s , a n d o f the w o r k s h o p of C e n t u s i n G a u l (36 l a m p s ) . T h e p r o v e n a n c e of s o m e other s i g n e d l a m p s , k n o w n f r o m i s o l a t e d pieces, c a n n o t y e t b e d e t e r m i n e d (11 l a m p s ) . T h e l a m p s p r o d u c e d b y the w o r k s h o p of R o m a n s e n s i s a n d b y t h e K o r i n t h i a n a n d A t t i c w o r k s h o p s are w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n G r e e c e a n d A s i a M i n o r ; their p r e s e n c e i n Crete s h o w s that t h e i s l a n d w a s w e l l i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e n e t w o r k of their d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T h e fact that f o r the first t i m e w e c a n a l s o i d e n t i f y C r e t a n w o r k s h o p s is far m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t (123 l a m p s ) . T h e u n s i g n e d l a m p s o f the ' C r e t a n t y p e ' , w h i c h a p p e a r i n t h e first c e n t u r y A D , h a v e l o n g b e e n k n o w n a n d s t u d i e d ( W a r d l e 1972, 274; M e r c a n d o 1974, 235; A p o s t o l a k o u 1987; P a p a d o p o u l o u 1989; C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1992, 2 6 5 - 7 3 ) ; f i n d s i n M i l e t o s a n d B e r e n i k e s h o w that these l a m p s w e r e e x p o r t e d ( M e n z e l 1 9 5 4 , 1 9 n o . 53; S a n d e r s 1982, 34). R e c e n t f i n d s f r o m the I d a e a n C a v e n o w a l l o w t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r w o r k s h o p s (cf. Table 5.2).
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c e r of C r e t a n l a m p s w a s G a m o s . D . M . B a i l e y h a d l o c a t e d t h i s w o r k s h o p i n B e r e n i k e , w h e r e e i g h t l a m p s w i t h t h i s s i g n a t u r e h a v e b e e n f o u n d ( B a i l e y 1 9 8 5 , 1 8 3 ; cf. M a r t i n 1997, 278; B a l d i n i a n d P a r e l l o 2 0 0 1 , 1 2 3 ) . T h e d i s c o v e r y a n d p u b l i c a t i o n of 69 l a m p s of G a m o s o n C r e t e - t w e n t y s e v e n a l o n e f r o m t h e I d a e a n C a v e - , s h o w , h o w e v e r , t h a t L. M e r c a n d o w a s r i g h t w i t h h e r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a C r e t a n w o r k s h o p ( M e r c a n d o 1974, 236). It w a s p r o b a b l y e s t a b l i s h e d o n C r e t e b y p o t t e r s f r o m C a m p a n i a ; t h e
S i g n a t u r e a n d n u m b e r o f a t t e s t a t i o n s A t t e s t a t i o n s i n C r e t e
C h a r i g o n o s ( 1 ) I.Cret. I I , x x i v 2 2
E u p h r o n i o s ( 1 ) I.Cret. I I , x x i v 2 3
K o r n e l i a n o s ( 1 ) I.Cret. I , v i i 2 8
M e n e m a c h o s ( 1 ) C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , 3 0 6 L 6 8 8
T h a s i a k o s / P e r s i s ( 1 ) I.Cret. I I . x x x 12
T i . C a e s a r i u s ? ( 1 ) I.Cret. I V 5 4 1 ( B o w s k y 1 9 9 9 , n o . 5 7 )
u n d e t e r m i n e d s i g n a t u r e s ( 1 0 ) I.Cret. I,i 1; I , i i 3 ; I I . x x x 1 0 - 1 1 ; C a t l i n g a n d C a t l i n g 1 9 9 2 , L 6 5 , L 2 8 0 , L 2 8 2 , L 4 4 4 , 3 0 6 - 7 L 6 9 8 ; C s a p o , G e a g a n a n d J o h n s t o n 2 0 0 0 , 1 3 2 n o . 1 0 0
Table 5.3 Lamps of workshops of unknown provenance
s i g n a t u r e fecit Gamus is k n o w n f r o m a l a m p o f the t y p e o f the ' f a c t o r y l a m p s ' ( L o e s c h k e 1919, 308 n o t e 476). It is k n o w n t h a t I t a l i a n l a m p p r o d u c e r s a n d f r e e d m e n w h o h a d w o r k e d i n Italian w o r k s h o p s m i g r a t e d to G r e e c e f r o m the late s e c o n d c e n t u r y o n w a r d s (Broneer 1930, 968; W i l l i a m s 1981, 27, 367). T h e p r o d u c t s of G a m o s ' w o r k s h o p w e r e e x p o r t e d f r o m Crete to Berenike, w h e r e C r e t a n w i n e a m p h o r a s h a v e a l s o b e e n f o u n d ( C h a n i o t i s 1988a, 77).
A n o t h e r w o r k s h o p of l a m p s that h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to B e r e n i k e ( M a r t i n 1997, 278), b u t w a s p r o b a b l y l o c a t e d o n Crete is that of Troilos. S e v e n t e e n l a m p s w i t h this s i g n a t u r e are k n o w n f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f Crete. W e m a y s u p p o s e a C r e t a n o r i g i n a l s o for the l a m p s of E l p i d i a n o s , Keler, Sergios, a n d S y m p h o r o s , since p r o d u c t s of these w o r k s h o p s are h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n o u t s i d e of Crete.
W e m a y o b s e r v e that the p r o d u c t s o f the l o c a l w o r k s h o p s clearly o u t n u m b e r the i m p o r t e d l a m p s . T h e f i n d s of the I d a e a n C a v e are q u i t e instructive: l a m p s w i t h C r e t a n s i g n a t u r e s m a k e u p m o r e t h a n t w o t h i r d s of the s i g n e d l a m p s f o u n d i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e (see Tables 5.1-5.2).
5. Inscribed Instrumenta Domestica and the Character of the Economy in Hellenistic Crete
A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the i n s c r i b e d i n s t r u m e n t a d o m e s t i c a i n H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n Crete i m p l i e s a d r a m a t i c c h a n g e i n the character of t h e i s l a n d ' s e c o n o m y . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m a n e c o n o m y that p r i m a r i l y a i m e d at c o v e r i n g local n e e d s t o a p r o d u c t i o n p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s e x p o r t s d i d n o t o c c u r i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , as m a i n t a i n e d b y s o m e scholars, b u t o n l y after t h e c o n q u e s t of C r e t e b y the R o m a n s .
S u b s i s t e n c e e c o n o m y b y n o m e a n s e x c l u d e s t r a d e activities (cf. B r u n e t 1999, 4 - 5 o n D e l o s ) . I n this c o n t e x t it is n e c e s s a r y to stress the essential difference b e t w e e n transit t r a d e a n d the e x p o r t of local p r o d u c t s . I n H e l l e n i s t i c Crete t r a d e activities are w e l l attested, e s p e c i a l l y the t r a d e w i t h s l a v e s a n d w i t h w a r b o o t y ( P e t r o p o u l o u 1985, 6 8 - 7 4 , 8 0 - 1 ; C h a n i o t i s 1996, 9 3 - 4 ; cf. G u i z z i 1999); there is a l s o e v i d e n c e f o r i m p o r t s to Crete (e.g., w i n e , w o r k s o f s c u l p t u r e , a n d l u x u r y objects). T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e C r e t a n s e x p l o i t e d the g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n of their i s l a n d for transit t r a d e (cf. V i v i e r s 1999); b u t there is n o e v i d e n c e f o r s u b s t a n t i a l e x p o r t s o f a n y Cretan p r o d u c t b e f o r e the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . T h e s c h o l a r s w h o u n d e r l i n e the i m p o r t a n c e of t r a d e f o r the e c o n o m y of H e l l e n i s t i c Crete t e n d to o v e r l o o k this d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n transit t r a d e a n d t r a d e i n local p r o d u c t s . Since t h i s issue is o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p e c u - liarities o f C r e t a n e c o n o m y i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , I s h o u l d c o m m e n t b r i e f l y o n t h e recent v i e w s of t w o of the best specialists o n Crete: P a u l a P e r l m a n a n d L.V. W a t r o u s .
I n h e r a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s t u d y P e r l m a n (1999, 1 4 6 - 5 1 ) h a s p r e s e n t e d a r e v i e w of e v i d e n c e w h i c h i n her v i e w is related to f o r e i g n trade; it i n c l u d e s the c l a u s e of
