How to balance forestry and biodiversity conservation – A view across Europe
Ireland – It‘s native woodland resource
T. Houlihan¹, R. Walsh²
¹Teagasc, Agriculture and Food Authority, Cleeny, Killarney, Co. Kerry, Ireland
² Teagasc, Agriculture and Food Authority, Mellows Centre, Athenry, Co. Galway, Ireland
C 17
< Fig. C 17.1. Riparian woodland as one of natures solutions to improve biodiversity conservation in Irelands forests (Photo: Tom Houlihan).
Native woods: context and ownership structure
Our school days in Ireland taught us that trees such as oak (Quercus robur, Q. petraea), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), elm (Ulmus glabra), hazel (Coryllus avel- lana), holly (Ilex aquifolium), alder (Alnus gluti-
nosa), birch (Betula pendula, B. pubescens) and a wide range of associated plants once covered most of the Irish countryside. Such species represent the natural vegetation type that much of open areas in Ireland would revert to in the absence of human interventions. Small areas of these most valuable habitats remain as scattered remnants through the
0 5 10 20 30km
Ireland
Legend
County Kerry Native Woodland
Ancient and Long-Established Woodland
Native Woodland and Ancient and Long-Established Woodland Close-up view of Lough Leane and surrounding area
Sources: Esri, Airbus DS, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community; Sources: Esri, HERE, Garmin, FAO, NOAA, USGS, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community
N
Statement
“Native woodlands represent one of Ireland’s most important and enduring national treasures. Protection and sensitive manage- ment of our existing resources combined with nurturing of a growing interest in new woodland establishment will leave an enduring legacy to be enjoyed for future generations.”
Irish countryside; many of these areas are in private ownership.
Native woodlands represent much more than just native tree species. They are havens containing unique communities of both plants and animals liv- ing either on or beneath the trees, and providing a wide range of ecosystem services for society. They contribute greatly to Ireland’s indigenous ecosys- tems, species, and genetic diversity. Such valuable ecosystems are rare and are endangered by devel- opment, grazing pressure, and invasive species (e.g.
rhododendron, Rhododendron ponticum). In this chapter, we explore the range of services that Irish native woodlands provide and the ongoing endeav- ours to protect and enhance this resource for the future.
A little bit of history
Native tree species are those that arrived in Ireland over thousands of years following the end of the last ice age (approximately 15 000 years ago). It
took another 4000 years before conditions became suitable for colonisation by pioneering plants and animals from southern and central Europe. Pollen records provide a clear picture of the developmen- tal progression of vegetation. First juniper (Junipe- rus communis) scrub and dwarf willow (Salix spp.) appeared followed by mixed birch, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and hazel woodland (Cross 2012).
The arrival of hazel and pine altered the character- istics of woodlands around 9500 years ago as reflected in increasing accumulation of the pollen of these species in peats around that time (Hall 1997).
By the time the first humans arrived (about 9000 years ago), Ireland was mostly covered in woodland (fig. C 17.2). The woodlands comprised species such as oak on the more acid soils of the south and northeast, with elm and hazel dominant on more fertile midland soils. Scots pine was con- fined to drier locations and birch was found on poorer soils. The role of land bridges and possible marine inundation of former land areas has been the subject of much debate (e.g. Devoy 1985, 1995,
Timber/Biomass
Non-timber products
Erosion
Protection
Biodiversity Recreation
Landscape Climate Groundwater
00
0 Fig. C 17.2. Decline of Ireland’s
native woodland resource over time (Neeson 1991).
80
40
0–2600 00
date AD
2020
Forest cover %
Brooks et al. 2011; Furze et al 2014). In drawing on experience from more remote islands, e.g. in the mid Pacific Ocean, Mitchel (2000) describes how trees are capable of long distance migration over water but that the mechanisms are rarely observed.
In the Irish context, he concludes it is probably more reasonable to consider our surrounding seas as filters rather than barriers to tree migration; in other words, some trees get across the sea while others do not. Such filters prevented the arrival of species such as beech (Fagus sylvatica), sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) other species.
Humans began to have a major impact on woodland cover about 5500 years ago (during the Neolithic period) when woodlands were cleared to accommodate tillage and pasture (DAFF 2008).
While there is some evidence of cycles of land clear- ance and woodland recovery in the later prehistoric period, the history of our native woodlands is one of progressive decline.
From the seventh century AD, early law tracts indicate that the great woods were often confined to marginal land and upland areas. As populations increased over the following centuries, the exploita- tion of woodlands increased under the Anglo Nor- mans and then successive English monarchs. There is no single reason for the ultimate decline of Ire- land’s forests but it is generally agreed that there were several contributory factors, beginning around the mid-sixteenth century (DAFF 2008). Key factors included industrialisation (shipbuilding, along with iron, glass, and barrel production) and
‘plantations’ (i.e. the parcelling out of large tracts of land to settlers who cleared large areas of wood- land for agriculture). Subsequent population increases between 1700 and 1840 again placed high demand on agricultural resources. By 1928, only 1.2 % of the country was covered in woodland (DAFM 2020).
The current woodland resource
Native woodlands are to be found scattered throughout Ireland with many occurring on upland areas (fig. C 17.3), slopes (fig. C 17.4) and also on cutaway bogs in the central part of Ireland. Most woodland is fragmented and small. In a national audit, Perrin et al. (2008) surveyed 1320 sites and found 50 % of these were 6 hectares (ha) or less in size with only 3.3 % of sites exceeding 50 ha.
Cross and Collins (2017) describe four catego- ries of native woodlands: (1) Ancient woodland – land under woodland cover since 1660 based on the oldest reliable national records; (2) Long-estab- lished woodland – land that has remained continu- ously wooded since at least the first edition Ord- nance Survey maps of the 1830s and 1840s; (3) Recent woodland – woodland likely to have origi- nated since the first Ordnance Survey maps; and (4) New woodland – woodland dominated by native species and created within the last 20 years or so through their establishment on open land.
The precise area of Ireland’s native woodland is difficult to quantify, as stands often contain a mix- Figs C 17.3 (left) and 4 (right). Examples of native woodland at Clonkeen, Killarney, southwest Ireland (Photos: Tom Houlihan).
How to balance forestry and biodiversity conservation – A view across Europe
ture of native and non-native species. Bullock and Hawe (2014) estimate an area of 100 000 ha or 1.2 % of the land area of the Republic of Ireland as native woodland. In its assessment of ‘nativeness’, the Third National Inventory (DAFM, 2017) reports an area of 128 000 ha of native forests (i.e. forest where native species occupy 80 % or more of the canopy) or about 19 % of Ireland’s stocked forest area. Mixed forests (i.e. forest where native species occupy 20–80 % of the canopy) account for 85 600 ha (12.7 % of the forest area). Cross and Col- lins (2017) point out that mixed and non-native for- ests also incorporate a range of stand types which include naturally regenerating birch in older coni- fer and commercial reforestation areas. Though not strictly considered native woodlands, these still merit consideration as part of our overall native woodland resource.
Management of native woodlands
Management planning geared towards conserving and restoring existing native woodland needs to be fully cognisant of all factors contributing to its cur- rent status and condition (Byrnes 2007). These include underlying factors such as climate, soil type, and elevation, as well as the ecology and natural dynamics of woodland types. The former woodland management regime(s) that pertained should be considered in this regard. Factors such as owner’s objectives and the threats to the woodlands posed by invasive exotic species and high deer population levels are also highly significant for management.
Cross and Collins (2017) describe the principal national management objectives to enhance the conservation status of all native woodland types.
These include:
– conservation of valuable habitats, associated species, and genetic variation;
– conservation and enhancement of species diver- sity;
– improvement of woodland structure;
– encouragement of natural regeneration;
– regulation of grazing;
– control of invasive species;
– increasing the amount of deadwood in forests.
Priority sites of high conservation value are identi- fied as a focus for management efforts in the con-
text of limited resources. Cross and Collins (2017) also highlight the importance of retaining the essential elements of the existing woodland envi- ronment when there is a focus on restoring native woodlands that were previously neglected or sub- ject to inappropriate management. For example, the existing levels of shade, humidity, and shelter onsite are regarded as vital for woodland flora and fauna diversity, even if such attributes are afforded by a current non-native canopy. The appropriate application of close-to-nature systems such as cop- picing and continuous cover forestry is regarded by the authors as highly relevant. These systems can enable gradual change in woodland species and structure as appropriate through harvesting of sin- gle or small groups of trees and follow–on regener- ation. This will help maintain the overall canopy cover as well as the existing woodland environ- ment.
Ecosystem services
Ireland’s native woodlands have the capacity to provide a flow of timber and non-timber products and services. The protection and expansion of these woodlands will deliver benefits including reversal of wider habitat fragmentation and the protection/
enhancement of biodiversity and water quality.
Other important functions include landscape enhancement and provision of locations for recrea- tion, tourism enterprises and education. Wood- lands are also of importance as resources for car- bon sequestration and flood control. Compatible wood production from native woodland can also help replace hardwood imports used in making high-value furniture and craft-related products.
Innovative Government supports are facilitat- ing native woodland protection and expansion.
Table C 17.1 outlines the measures in place, collabo- ratively developed and administered by the Depart- ment of Agriculture, Food and Marine (DAFM). Sup- port is also available for woodland improvement and the provision of forest roads as appropriate.
Natural capital
Natural capital is a concept that frames the world’s resources (such as land, plants, animals, habitats and water) as assets or stocks that yield a flow of
Table C 17.1. Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine incentives for native woodland creation.
Measure/Scheme Descriptor Available Funding
Native Woodland
Establishment1 Supports the establishment of new native
woodland on ‘greenfield’ sites Grant aid and annual premia Deer Tree Shelter and Deer/
Hare Fencing Scheme2
Supports landowners growing broadleaves in areas where there is a risk of deer/hare damage
Funding supports for new deer fencing, deer fence upgrades and hare fencing
NeighbourWood Scheme3 Supporting the development of attractive close-to-home woodland amenities for public use and enjoyment
Grants aid plus additional fencing allowance
Woodland Creation on Public Lands4
Establish new native woodland on suitable state-owned lands
Grant aid plus fund for trails and signage as well as forest playgrounds Native Woodland Scheme
Conservation5 Supports the restoration of existing native woodland and the conversion of non-native forest to native woodland and opportunities for management of emerging native woodland
Grant aid and annual premia
Woodland Environment Fund6
Provides an access point for individual busi- nesses to help expand Ireland’s native wood- land resource, by providing additional incen- tives to encourage landowners to plant new native woodlands where appropriate
Potential grant top up on existing grant aid
1 See: https://www.teagasc.ie/crops/forestry/grants/establishment-grants/native-woodland-establishment
2 See: https://www.teagasc.ie/crops/forestry/grants/management-grants/deer-tree-shelters-and-deerhare-fencing-scheme
3 See: https://www.teagasc.ie/crops/forestry/grants/management-grants/neighbourwood-scheme
4 See: https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/forestry/grantandpremiumschemes/2020/CreationofWoodlandson PublicLandsFINAL310720.pdf
5 See https://www.teagasc.ie/crops/forestry/grants/management-grants/native-woodland-conservation
6 See: https://www.teagasc.ie/media/website/crops/forestry/news/DAFM-WEF-leaflet-14Sept18.pdf
Fig. C 17.5. Estimated annual ecosystem service values based on future expansion of native woodland cover.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Amenity Tourism Health Biodiversity Water related
services Carbon storage
and sequestration Timber and wood fuel
Value € millions
benefits to society. The Natural Capital approach involves measuring and valuing natural capital assets (Irish Forum on Natural Capital 2020). In their report prepared for the Woodlands of Ireland, Bull- ock and Hawe (2014) quantify the economic value of ecosystem good and services provided by the nat- ural capital of Ireland’s native woodland resource.
These include provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. The authors describe the importance of integrating such values into national
accounting and reporting systems. They provide baseline estimates of the annual economic value for Ireland’s native woodland resource in the range
€ 100–143 million. Of this, the annual value of amenity use of native woodlands is estimated to be in the order of € 35 million. Annual expenditure on woodland-related tourism is estimated at € 50 mil- lion. The annual value of carbon sequestration is estimated at € 8 million. This is likely to increase considerably in line with future carbon price
How to balance forestry and biodiversity conservation – A view across Europe
increases. As new information and metrics become available, estimates for the value of water-related services are likely to be significantly higher than previously estimated (Bullock pers. comm.).
In looking to the future, Bullock and Hawe (2014) also provide indicative values of potential benefits realisable through native woodland expansion. For example, expansion of Ireland’s native resource to 25 % of total forest cover is expected to yield an overall annual ecosystem ser- vice value in the order to € 274 million (fig. C 17.5).
The purpose of assigning a financial value is not to change the fundamental and intrinsic value of nature – which is arguably priceless – and many ecosystem services are irreplaceable. Having a financial value for natural capital shared by society at large, as distinct from being perceived as ‘free’, can shift behaviour away from degradation to res- toration (Irish Forum on Natural Capital 2020).
Case study on Native Woodland Estab- lishment Scheme: southwest Ireland
‘Trees are a natural part of this area and it’s great to see them return’. Pat O’Connor and his family farm 74 ha in a beautiful wooded valley in Clonkeen, Kil- larney (fig. C 17.6). Pat remembers the bleakness of the landscape after World War II when ‘there wasn’t a tree left standing’. In 2005, Pat examined his options and decided to incorporate 16 ha of his farm into the Native Woodland Scheme. Work was completed in 2006 and Pat never regretted his deci- sion. Pat was subsequently featured in the Teagasc bi-monthly magazine ‘Today’s Farm’ in 2007 (fig.
C 17.7 and C 17.8).
Pat has a great affinity with nature and has very positive views on the Native Woodland Scheme. His native woodland – which incorporates oak, alder (fig. C 17.9 and C 17.10), birch, and moun-
Fig. C 17.6. Indicative extent of native woodland at Clonkeen, Killarney, Co. Kerry.
(Sources: World Imagery – Esri, Maxar, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community. Ordnance Survey Ireland – open data)
tain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) – is flourishing in the absence of threats from deer and livestock. Pat describes how planting enhanced the amenity and recreational value of his farm, created additional habitat value, improved biodiversity, and provided a legacy that will be enjoyed by future generation.
All woodland establishment costs incurred were covered by the Native Woodland Grant and the annual premium payments were a welcome bonus. A co-operative approach with an adjoining landowner, who established 12 ha under the Native Woodland Scheme, resulted in economies of scale and reduced costs for both owners. Pat took a hands-on approach, getting involved in the estab-
lishment work himself. Pat’s woodland is now well established (fig. C 17.10). He undertook further planting of mixed commercial forest (22 ha) of his farm in 2013. Pat is now considering further native woodland establishment on 7 ha of land that he inherited, a strong endorsement of the Native Woodland Scheme.
Biodiversity
Ireland’s native woodland resource constitute a genetic resource and a huge reservoir of biodiver- sity, including both plants and animals. Cross (2012) Fig. C 17.7. Pat planted initially in 2006. Fig. C 17.8. Pat in 2019, considering more planting
(Photos: Tom Houlihan).
Fig. C 17.9. Post-planting in 2006. Fig. C 17.10 Well-developed woodland, 2020 (Photos:
T. Houlihan).
How to balance forestry and biodiversity conservation – A view across Europe
describe how 20 % of our plants, 28 % of breeding birds, and 50 % of invertebrates are woodland spe- cies in the broadest sense. In the National Survey of Native Woodlands, Perrin et al. (2008) identified four principal woodland types based on the associ- ated species assemblage. Each woodland type is named according to the dominant tree and herba- ceous species. The four woodland types are: oak/
woodrush (Quercus petraea/Luzula sylvatica); ash/
ivy (Fraxinus excelsior/Hedera helix); alder/mead- owsweet (Alnus glutinosa/Filipendula ulmaria); and birch/purple moorgrass (Betula pubescens/Molinia caerulea). Further analysis divided these four groups into 22 vegetation types.
Irish native woodlands are also diverse in struc- ture with typically five recognised layers or tiers of diverse vegetation in a vertical profile. The tree
layer comprises taller tree species such as oak and birch and is called the canopy; the tallest trees may extend above the general canopy as ‘emergents’.
Cross (2012) also describes a secondary canopy made up of smaller trees. The shrub layer is formed by small trees and shrubs and may include species such as holly, hazel, hawthorn (Crataegus monog- yna), and emerging trees of the canopy species. A dwarf shrub layer may also be found on acidic soils and containing low-growing woody species such as bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) or ling heather (Cal- luna vulgaris).
Biodiversity case study: Ballyseedy Wood
Ballyseedy Wood is situated near Tralee, County Kerry in the southwest of Ireland (fig. C 17.11). The property was purchased on behalf of the local com-
Fig. C 17.11. Ballyseedy Wood, County Kerry, Ireland (Sources: World Imagery – Esri, Maxar, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AeroGRID, IGN, and the GIS User Community. Ordnance Survey Ireland – open data).
Woods Action Group and is held in trust and man- aged by Kerry County Council. Ballyseedy Wood has a long and distinguished history, being first recorded on a map made by English adventurer Sir Edward Denny in 1587. Various recordings of tree planting are documented over the centuries (McMorran 1991). Today, Ballyseedy contains a number of highly valuable woodland types. The site is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under the Habitats Directive, selected for its residual alder/ash-dominated woodland which conforms well to the woodland type ‘Alluvial Forest’ (figs C 17.12 and 13).
Alluvial forest is listed with priority status under Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive (Natura Code 91E0) and is a habitat type that is rare in Europe (NPWS 2018). The very large alder trees present are likely to have been planted. However, much of the secondary regeneration is also quite mature, being up to 100 years of age.
Studies of flora and fauna in Ballyseedy Wood are indicative of the biodiversity potential of such valuable habitats. The National Survey of Native Woodlands (Perrin et al. 2008) report a total of 196 vascular and 45 bryophyte species recorded in Bal- lyseedy Wood during previous field visits, with 22 native tree species, including some locally less com- mon tree species. Studies recorded over 100 species of Lepidoptera (including seven noteworthy spe- cies) and 12 species of Diptera. Ground invertebrate surveys included nine species of carabid beetle and 40 species of staphylinid beetle, three of which indicate ecologically well-developed deadwood microhabitat, and a fourth that indicates well-de- veloped wetland habitat (O’Neill et al. 2008, citing WM Associates 2003).
A bird survey in 2002 recorded 33 bird species within the woodlands of which 23 were deemed to be breeding. In addition, the woodland has been noted as a nesting site for long-eared owl (Asio otus) and woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) have been recorded in winter. Badgers (Meles meles), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), common frogs (Rana temporaria) and Irish hares (Lepus timidus subsp. hibernicus) also have been recorded at Ballyseedy. Both salmon (Salmo salar) and trout (Salmo trutta) have been recorded in the River Lee along the northern boundary of the woodland. Non-native tree species are present within the site but account for less than 30 % of the woodland (NPWS 2019).
Carbon sequestration
There is a growing interest in the establishment of new native woodland in Ireland. Woodland estab- lishment can play an important and complemen- tary role in combating climate change. Based on current available data, the indicative average annual sequestration rates for (long-term reten- tion) native species in Ireland can range between 1.7 and 5.5 t CO2-e/ha depending on species, grow- ing conditions, and management (Black pers.
comm.). The establishment of new woodlands and forests in Ireland has a particularly important and beneficial role to play beyond 2030. Forests provide a range of raw materials for industry as well as ser- vices to society. To sustain service provision, a Figs C 17.12 and 13. Alluvial woodland Ballyseedy; a rare and threatened habitat type in Europe (Photos: Tom Houlihan).
well-balanced age structure is needed at national forest level. In the Irish context, maintaining the cli- mate change benefits of Irish forests will require a significant and sustained national planting pro- gramme over the next two decades, including native tree species. Achievement of this goal is, therefore, a key component of national climate change and land use policy (DAFM 2015, Wood- lands of Ireland 2016; and DAFM 2020).
Amenity and recreation
Ireland’s native woodlands offer strong potential as recreational and educational resources. Ballyseedy Wood is an exemplar woodland recreational amen- ity offering a unique and tranquil experience (figs C 17.14–17): ‘Such a beautiful place at any time of day … get lost under the trees … smells of the wood … lovely in the sunshine but even nicer after a fall of rain … paths mark out such a piece of heaven just outside the town of Tralee’ (Tripadvisor 2019). The wonderful amenity that exists today is the fruitful result of collaboration between by Kerry County Council, the National Parks and Wild- life Service, DAFM, Ballyseedy Woods Action Group and a range of other local groups and agencies.
Ballyseedy Wood was one of the pilot sites funded by DAFM under the ‘NeighbourWood Scheme’
(Table C 17.1) which supports the development of attractive close-to-home woodland amenities.
Water-related services
Well-sited, well-designed, and sustainably man- aged woodlands deliver many services associated with the aquatic environment. The ‘Woodland for Water’ measure (DAFM 18b, fig. C 17.18) combines the establishment of new native woodland in con- junction with undisturbed water setbacks (buffers of natural ground vegetation to protect water and aquatic ecosystems) and can be effectively applied alongside streams, rivers, and lakes to form perma- nent semi-natural landscape features. This measure has been developed by DAFM to deliver meaning- ful ecosystem services that protect and enhance aquatic ecosystems and water quality (fig. C 17.18).
Figs C 17.14–17. Ballyseedy Wood: A haven for recreation and tranquillity (Photos: T. Houlihan).
These services include protection and buffering of watercourses from sediment and nutrient runoff, bankside stabilisation, and provision of conditions for shading, cooling, and regulation of floodwater.
The provision of detritus and food input into aquatic ecosystems and the protection of protected aquatic species is also very important. The Wood- land for Water measure may be realised using the Native Woodland Establishment Scheme, available from the DAFM.
Resilience of Native Woodlands
The Strategy for Native Woodlands in Ireland (Woodlands of Ireland 2016) highlights the need to ensure the future resilience of Ireland’s woodland resources. The report describes the implications of climate change across a wide range of wood- land-related interests. These include woodland dynamics, water quality, invasive alien species, and tree pests and diseases. The need to address the impact of climate change and develop robustness of new and existing native woodlands is high- lighted, especially with regard to the adaptability of native tree species and the suitability or other- wise of non-indigenous provenances. The potential impact of invasive species as well as pests and dis- eases on our native woodlands is also a significant issue related to climate change (coupled with increased international trade) that needs to be pri- oritised.
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Direct Use Values:
Timber and ancillary use, drinking and fresh water
Woodlands for Water
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How to balance forestry and biodiversity conservation – A view across Europe
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