Veröffentlichungsreihe des Internationalen Instituts für Vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung
Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin
IIVG/dp 81-113
FROM THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY TO THE INFORMATION SOCIETY - CRISES OF TRANSITION IN SOCIETY,
POLITICS AND CULTURE Karl W. Deutsch
and
Philipp Sonntag April 1981
Publication Series of the International Institute for Comparative Social Research
Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin Steinplatz 2
D-1OOO Berlin 12
Die in dieser Arbeit vertretenen Auffassungen sind die der Verfasser und nicht notwendigerweise
die des Internationalen Instituts für Vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung.
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the International Institute for Comparative Social Research.
tion processing. The growing importance of aspects of information can be measured quantitatively by means of information ratios - the information content is steadily increasing relative to mass, energy, money spent, etc.
A theory of information-overflow and of information-handling under stress can be taken as a device for a systematic
dealing with current and imminent crises in the context of social change.
Zusammenfassung
Die Lebensbedingungen des Menschen und die Strukturen der Gesellschaft werden zunehmend von der Entwicklung der In
formationsverarbeitung beeinflußt. Die wachsende Bedeutung von Aspekten der Information kann durch die Messung von Informationsraten quantitativ erfaßt werden - die Menge der Information wächst relativ zu dem Aufwand an Masse, Energie oder Geld. Mit einer Theorie der Informationsbelastung und -bewältigung kann eine Grundlage gelegt werden für eine systematische Erfassung von aktuellen und drohenden Krisen im Zuge des gesellschaftlichen Wandels.
Table of Contents Page 1. Summary ... . . . 1 2. Theoretical Aspects ... . . . . 2 2.1 Measuring Amounts of Information and the . .
Density of Information. ... .. . . 2 2.2 Measurement and Estimation at the Societal. .
Level: Some Possible Indicators . . . 3 2.3 From Information Channels to Contents, . . .
Memories and Meaning... 7 2.4 Perceived and Unperceived Data Processing . . 1 0 3. Information Densities as Indicators of Social
Change: Is there a Threshold towards an
Information-Rich Society? ... 12 4. Some Information Aspects of Crises, Current
and Developing. ...13 5. References. ... 19
1. Summary
During the years 1940 to 1980 it became widely known through
out the different branches of science that information could be measured quantitively . Technicians of telephonic
communications and related fields developed methods for the measurement of the amount of signs, words, or conversations transferred through a telephone wire or similar channel.
With this "channel-orientation" as a starting point, theoret
icians like Claude E. Shannon, Norbert Wiener and others developed the mathematical theory of communication and cybernetics, the theory of steering (guidance, control),
(Shannon and Weaver, 1949; Wiener, 1947, 1950, 1962; Ashby, 1956; Cherry, 1957; Deutsch, 1963, 1966).
At the same time there was an increasing emphasis on infor
mation gathering and information transfer within the econo
mic sector. The amount of this increase in the past and future can be evaluated using suitable quantitative indica
tors for the societal and political consequences of infor
mation processing. This is a scientific task, which we are just beginning to master (Machlup, 1962; Deutsch, 1953,
1966, 1979): the measurement of information rates and the reactions to information overload.
An evaluation of the quality of communication is also
necessary. Such an evaluation would deal with the content, associations, impacts, and consequences of information.
This would require a transition from a channel-oriented information theory toward a t.erminal-oriented information theory, and would allow for a variety of useful applica
tions. This implies a look at the meaning of communications sent and received in relation to the memories of the
sender and receiver (Deutsch, 1979; Deutsch and Fritsch, 1980). These meanings can then be differentiated into fur
ther dimensions. For example, there can be (1) an evaluation of each message, in regard to its sources (who is sending the message?), (2) context (what is it about? (3) substance,
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(what does it say?), and, from the point of view of the receiver, in regard to its (4) affectivity (is it pleasant or unpleasant?), (5) morality (is it legitimate?), (6) reality (is it true?), (7) self-respect (what will it do to my self-image?), (8) intentionality (how does it fit into my plans?) and (9) action relevance (what is to be done about it?)- (For more detail, see p . 8 below.)
The exploration of such analytical categories could then serve as a foundation for the quantitative measurement of content and for the qualitative evaluation through case studies of communication crises and misunderstandings at the political level. These research areas should then per
mit the evaluation of the probability, characteristics, and size of crises of communication and decision making, past and future.
It implies a judgment of the validity of rational struc
tures if the influence of human factors upon decision pro
cesses is taken into account. Practical examples have been presented by Sonntag (1980, 1981a, 1981b). This discussion paper is being put forward as a first step toward a more comprehensive and consistent information theory, which is the goal of an ongoing research project at the International Institute for Comparative Social Research.
2.0 Theoretical Aspects
2.1 Measuring Amounts of Information and the Density of Information
Today's industry is broadly experienced in measuring and processing information wherever clearly circumscribed tasks of a technical or organizational nature are involved. Par
ticularly in the field of electronic data processing, both the quantity of rapidly available information as well as the speed and variety of methods for processing information have grown by several orders of magnitude. (A change in order of magnitude is taken to mean that a value changes
by a factor of 2 to 10.)
The early foundations for measuring quantities of informa
tion were provided by Claude Shannon (Shannon and Weaver, 1949) and Norbert Wiener (1947, 1962). They translate the content of a given piece of information into a numerable quantity of yes/no decisions (bits). Information then becomes measurable as the reduction of a definable amount of uncertainty. Proceeding along these lines, one can ex
press in precise mathematical terms the transmitting capa
city of a given channel and the quantity of information to be transferred. One can then develop techniques for measuring the reliability of a transmission, the redundancy of a message, and various aspects of encoding and decoding.
Like mass and energy, information is a fundamental aspect of the material world, viewed in space and time
(cf. e.g. Kantor, 1977).
2.2 Measurement and Estimation at the Societal Level:
Some Possible Indicators
Economic development since the beginning of the 20th cen
tury has been characterized by a steady rise in the various values relating infprmation to matter and energy. We dis
tinguish a series of information ratios, whose systematic measurement needs to be more thoroughly investigated.
Initial guidelines for information ratios or densities can be formulated as follows:
a) The relationship of information to mass. How high is the information density in a kilogram of iron ore, a kilo
gram of nails or an equally heavy hammer, in a kilogram of Swiss watches or a kilogram of electronic microchips? In the case of pure data storage (words, figures), capacities can readily be compared (how much can be included in a book, on microfilm, etc.). Insofar as the production of nails is no longer growing at a fast rate while micro-pro
cessors and fiberglass cables are accumulating more rapidly,
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a shift in economic proportions is underway which may critically upset certain balances. According to figures provided by the Heinrich Hertz Institute in Berlin, a glass fiber weighing 5 grams can, with the help of laser techno
logy, transmit approximately as many telephone calls as can 100xkilograms of copper wire (cf. also: Fußgänger et al., 1978).
Other measuring criteria can be applied. One can, for example, compute the information investment necessary to produce an instrument (e.g. how many bits must be trans
mitted for its construction and how much of the receiver's existing stock of information can be recalled). Such an analysis would produce a different evaluation than if one were to estimate the possible or probable information gain
(reduction of uncertainty by means of the use of such an instrument) .
b) A second relationship is the ratio of information to energy. Early computers with vacuum tubes still had to be cooled; today we find the number of possible computations constantly increasing, while energy (and space) requirements decline, altogether opening ever new fields of application.
c) A third rate is the number of decisions made or trans
mitted per unit of time. Modern technology is continually making new and greater demands upon this capacity. During the design of man-machine systems it is already of vital importance to take into account ergonometric considerations of the limits of human information processing capacities in order to avoid unmanageable information overloads.
d) A fourth indicator is the proportion of the information budget in relation to the total budget for all types of organizations and institutions, both in the public and in the private sectors.
e) A fifth information measure is the ratio of the labor force primarily engaged in processing information - i.e., for example, printers, secretaries, reporters, teachers, administrative officials and scientists - to the total
national labor force. Over several decades in this century, the proportion of professional occupations primarily con
cerned with processing information in the United States has risen by 5% per decade (Machlup, 1972).
f) Information per person about people. The number of characteristic attributes which are measurable and systema
tically recorded is growing (e.g. diagnostic information for doctors, number and conditions of insurance policies, police data, as in the Flensburg file on traffic violations, and many more).
g) Per capita information of significance for the people:
for structuring their environments, pursuing their occupa
tions, engaging in political and cultural activities. This kind of information only becomes relevant to the individuals involved if it is both available and utilizable (Freedom
of Information Act, 1966). This touches upon the funda
mentals of freedom and the practical application of basic democratic rights. Here availability ratios and actual utilization ratios should be distinguished, at least in con
ceptual analysis and for purposes of estimation.
Theoretically speaking, more ways of combining and relating information variables mean that new conclusions become
possible: to what extent does a stable conjunction of several indications - a syndrome - enable a physician, to make a more precise diagnosis? A critical problem here is again the information overload affecting individuals, public and private organizations, national governments and inter
national organizations.
The value of a greater information density will be contin
gent upon suitable means for compressing information and
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the establishment of adequate coping mechanisms in regard to information search and recognition. In the past, there have been numerous improvements in compressing information, such as the introduction of the number 0, the implementation of the decimal system, the rapid availability of data in decentralized computer terminals.
Where information cannot be compressed, information overload may become unavoidable. In the face of a continuous, rapid increase in the amount of information to be processed,
effective responses to information overload are needed.
How do people react to the growing communication overload?
In the short run, laboratory experiments reveal five basic responses (Deutsch, 1978 a:3):
a) selective memory: especially relevant items are singled out and assigned priority status for transmittal,
storage and recall,
b) "chunking"; bodies of knowledge are simplified and summarized in a rough, schematic manner,
c) selective forgetting: as an emergency measure, single messages or whole blocks of information are filtered out and disregarded in order to keep the data processing system from breaking down,
d) increases in the frequency and size of errors, as well as their accumulation within the framework of a half
way manageable data processing operation, 3) breakdown due to overstrain.
Just as the input channels can be overloaded, the memory and storage processes are also subject to strain. With the help of information ratios like those described above, it is possible to register and measure increases in informa
tion density for a great number of different activities in all kinds of social structures and government systems.
This analysis can provide the foundation and criteria for accomodations to this aspect of social change.
This approach allows for a quantitative measurement of the continuous increases in information supply, with all their qualitative leaps and bounds. Indications of an information revolution are already manifest in numerous aspects of the industrial revolution, and its progressive development can be evaluated on this basis. It is helpful to distinguish among several periods within the industrial revolution (e.g.
1760-1860 in England, 1830-1890 in Germany, and the highly industrialized era from 1890-1950). The information revo
lution currently underway may well be characterized by
similarly long periods of development in different countries Sensitivity analyses are useful for comparing different means of measurement. In investigating the historical origins of information ratios, the choice of measuring
technique is admittedly somewhat arbitrary. It may, however emerge that the increments (as opposed to the absolute
values) of the information ratios are of similar orders of magnitude and thus, in the final analysis, invariant with respect to form of measurement.
This approach consistently compares information loads and capacities for coping with them. Continuing along these lines, it should, evidently, be possible to apprehend approaching crises in the absorption and processing of in
formation, to judge the extent of such crises and antici
pate the possible alternative routes they may take.
2.3 From Information Channels to Contents, Memories and Meaning
Given an information processing unit (a computer, a human being, an information bureau, etc.), it is possible, as we know, to distinguish between input and output. But if we restrict ourselves to analyzing what data input elicits
what data output, the data processing unit itself may remain a kind of "black box" with an unknown inner structure.
However, both in the case of data processing within a single
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unit and in data exchanges between two or more terminals, the structure of the processing procedure and the act of transmission are equally important aspects of the total operation. Within his storage capacities and data process
ing structures, the information receiver confronts each incoming message with some items or patterns stored in his memory. By so doing, he carries out a series of analyses and evaluations which enter into his decisions. For
example, in regard to the categories of meaning referred to briefly earlier (on p. 1 , above);
1. source: who is sending the message?
2. meaning or sense; the introduced information is linked to a known context - what appears to be the subject of the information?
3. content or substance: how the content is interpreted - what does the information convey to a particular
receiver?
4. affectivity or emotional value: what degree of emotion (alarm, shock, boredom, anger, apathy, fear, joy, etc.) does the information induce in the receiver (this
applies to institutions as well as persons)? (cf. the
"id" and the "pleasure principle" in Freud's work) 5) cultural and social value: is the information legi
timate; does it accord with moral principles? (cf.
Freud's "superego")
6) relation to reality; is the information true or false?
(cf. Freud's "reality principle")
7) self-image and role; what effect does the information have upon the receiver's self-esteem and, furthermore, upon how he expects others to regard him? (cf. Freud's
"ego" and "ego-strength")
8) intentionality: what difference would the message make to the receiver's plans?
9) relevance to action: what is to be done? How does the information fit into the receiver's own intentions and plans? Must new decisions be made?
For more on points 3-6, see Deutsch and Senghaas (1971) and the same authors in Kilson (1976).
S e n d e r S . C h a n n e l C. Rec e i v e r R . S u b j e c t i v e I n t e n t i o n :
d e c i s i o n s e l e c t i n g i n f o r m a tio n i n t h e mem ory o f S
O b j e c t i v e T r a n s m i s s i o n P r o c e s s
( i n b i t s )
S u b j e c t i v e P e r c e p t i o n : d e c i s i o n s e l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t io n i n t h e mem ory o f R
d e e p memory c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s 1 .
2 . 3 . 4 . -5 :
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n ( a b s t r a c t i o n ) d i s s o c i a t i o n
p a t t e r n m a t c h in g a n d t r a n s f e r a l
p a t t e r n e x t r a p o l a t i o n p a t t e r n r e c o m b i n a t i o n
mem ory e l e m e n t s a s
d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s ( s t r a t a )
= o f p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e
N o s . 3 - 6 a r e n o r m a l l y s t r o n g l y i n t e r l i n k e d .
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The significance of the received information depends upon its relevance for the recipient. His interpretation of the signals received from his environment is "correct" if his response is purposeful and appropriate to the situation and if he selects and processes precisely those bits of information which are relevant to this end.
2.4 Perceived and Unperceived Data Processing
To evaluate the communication process purely on the basis of input and output flows would be too crude a procedure.
For individual freedom as well as political responsibility, it is desirable that the data flow with the data processing unit itself be differentiated as follows:
data processing = perceived data processing + unperceived data processing DP = PDP + UDP
PDP:
Perceived, conscious, controlled data processing. PDP
comprises the data describing every known step of data pro-^
cessing between input and output - be it within the central unit of a computer, be it within the consciousness of an individual or in the visible disclosed behavior of an
i
institution. That which is perceived, known ,. or directly accessible may vary according to the observer. A special case involves the self-image of an organization or the self- knowledge of an individual person. Here, it may be that an external observer is better informed than the person or institution in question.
UDP:
Unperceived, unconscious or uncontrolled data processing takes place below the threshold of immediate tangibility, it escapes all means of control, but may have an unperceived influence upon a decision. The data flows described here influence data processing in a manner which the decision
making subject or external observer can grasp only partially
or not at all. Indeed, they may, under certain circum
stances, pass entirely unperceived.
Output is not immune to changes in UDP which may evolve out of the private unconscious data store of an individual, or derive from unperceived influences in the external en
vironment, i.e. through exposure to information whose
influence is not immediately recognizable. UDP can assume the form of an automatic data processing structure: the information flow is transmitted via a rigid scheme which- given otherwise similar circumstances - always transforms a particular input into the same corresponding output.
UDP may, likewise, assume the form of an information flow which, together with the input, influences the known part of the data processing operation, as described by PDP.
Whether certain data should be classified as unperceived or perceived can vary according to the system and data pro
cessing procedure in question. For example, the information of a good poker player is known to himself but hidden from his opponents; in psychotherapy, the qualified therapist sometimes knows more about the thoughts and feelings of his patient than the patient himself.
Further criteria can be brought to bear upon the investi
gation: e.g., are the data in question open or secret;
does a given observer find them clear and perspicuously (o.r transparently) presented (perceptible in the sense of comprehensible, i.e. readily and unequivocably intelligible) In evaluating information, it is thus possible to draw the following distinctions:
clear/perspicuous/transparent
yes no
open
yes PDP UDP
no UDP UDP
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To ensure that data is perceived, that decisions are really
"conscious,” a whole set of conditions must be fulfilled.
It is difficult to establish impersonally verifiable
criteria for evaluating the perspicuity of data. Depending upon whether a given observer has a vacant, limited, or well- endowed memory, and depending upon whether his inductive
abilities are weak or strong, the import of some messages received will either be perceived or remain unperceived.
Thus, the capactiy of a transmission channel on the one hand can be measured in terms independent of significance
(e.g.,) the simultaneous transmission of 25 telephone calls).
But on the other hand it can be measured as a function of the coding of meaning, e.g., where it suffices to transmit by telephone a number which labels a specific congratulatory telegram, and thus corresponds readily to a well-established context stored in the memory of the receiving telegraph office
(which then translates it into a more elaborate message for the recipient of the congragualtion).
The aim of this approach to information theory is to con
struct a more comprehensive model for the flow of infor
mation using the measurement of information in channels and terminals at the same time. This model can then be used to simulate how reality is depicted on the basis of selected information to simulate learning processes, and decision
making processes,given more or less uncertain problems and time limits (stress). (See also some applications below P.13) 3. Information Densities as Indicators of Social Change:
Is there a Threshold towards an Information-Rich Society?
New paths in the theory of social communications are less in danger of taking an arbitrary or irrelevant turn if they are subjected to constant testing against empirical data and socially relevant problems. Firstly, social communi-
%
cation theory is concerned with using practicable techniques for measuring information densities to arrive at an evalu
ation of the extent of social change during the transition towards an information -rich society. Secondly, social i ndicators provide valuable insights towards an under-
Standing of society, even though the procedures for their measurement and aggregation are still at an early stage of development (Zapf, 1976). In spite of its many
statistical inadequacies, the UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Development) data bank for development indica
tors yields numerous clues to far from self-evident struc
tures which can then be investigated more closely (cf.
Deutsch, 1978). Accordingly, the information processes involved in actual decision-making should be quantified on the basis of practical applications.
4. Some Information Aspects of Crises, Current and Developing
The growth of information quantities, information ratios and capacities for processing information is unevenly distri
buted over different communications fields. This creates disproportions which can lead to crises which have arisen in the past and which will probably arise in the future.
It is the ultimate goal of the research plan presented here to accomplish a thorough investigation of the connection
between information development, crises evaluation and crisis control in the period of transition to an information-
rich society. Some illustrative thoughts on possible
future applications of the research approach proposed here are outlined in the following text.
Technical change is manifest in the increasing complexity of instruments. It would be important to examine to what extent the quantitative measurement of information densities is a suitable means for aggregating a qualitative develop
ment on a scale. A conceivable measure would be the number of parts per motor vehicle, based on time series for
different models. This standard can then be applied to performance, e.g. to passenger miles.
14
Analysing the complexity and capactiy of networks involves extremely difficult mathematical operations. How does the capacity of a transportation system change when a bridge is closed or a new bridge opens? Using information den
sities, one can attempt to extrapolate from the immediate situation at hand to an objective defined on an ad hoc basis; by means of aggregation, it then becomes possible
to make trend analyses with long-term validity. The invest
ment necessary to transmit current information can be es
timated. In the case of "information explosions," it would furthermore be of interest to examine the historical back
ground and give a precise picture of the conditions involved.
The strain of an increasing information density at the place of work is being counteracted with a policy of information condensation. The restrictions which regulations for more humane working conditions impose upon this source of strain vary from country to country. But taking human capabilities and weaknesses 'into account is not only a matter of humani
tarian ism or health. A common experience has been that neglecting the human factor can cause economic liabilities and technical risks. An example: Senders (1980) presents an ergonometric critique of the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island. More than one hundred instruments sounded
the alarm at the same time, using red, green, yellow and white lamps,and/or whistles. The controllers had a hard
time selecting the most important messages. Apparently the control devices were designed for standard operations, but not for accidents, the scope of many scales was insufficient.
There, are a variety of preventive measures conceivable that can reduce the probability of accidents and of failures or critical delays in the interpretation of control signals.
The use of- computers is increasingly being advocated to avoid mismanagement in nuclear power plants by making
immediate predictions as to the consequences of conceivable would-be compensatory measures, should certain situations
arise (Langenbuch and Werner, 1980). Lack of adequate precautions can lead to catastrophes in civilian as well as military areas due to information overload (Sonntag, 1981b: 100 ff.).
In the social science field of disaster research, discussion has lately focused on the discrepancy between technically advanced warning systems and their practicability (see esp.
reports of the Disaster Research Center in Columbus, Ohio;
for a summary, see: Quarantelli, 1976).
Thus, a conceivable field for the application of information theory is that of risk management. Innumerable political decisions must be made concerning unlikely but highly dan
gerous events, or regarding permanent detrimental conse
quences whose extent may be slight or difficult to measure but whose likelihood is strong. Decisions in spite of
insufficient data, decisions made under the stress of acute time limits - such and more should be examined from the point of view of information theory, considering the emo
tional behavioral patterns involved.- Special subjects are the formation and cultivation of enemy images, communica
tive difficulties in crisis management, as well, as aspects of secrecy related to information theory.
Failures or shortcomings in man-machine systems would be most disastrous in the military field. The application of informational aspects to common military structures is of vital importance. A closer look reveals that even the most promising complex weapon system might turn out to have sur
prising results under combat conditions. Clear and detailed evidence has been forwarded lately that logistic support, quality assurance, and human factors are not taken into
account in adequate way: neither in the acquisition process of weapon systems, nor in practical training (GAO 1981,
Spinney, 1981, Collins, 1980). Even under peace time condi
tions the inoperability of systems has been quite alarming (GAO 1981:6). In the areas of command and control we face
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problems similar to the overload of information during the Three Mile Island reactor accident: missile systems and expensive computer systems are capable of presenting far more information than the human brain can absorb, especially under the stress of warfare (Spinney, 1980), and especially under the technical necessity of launching strikes 11in time"
and with "sufficient" power. Knowing that the opponent has the same technical coercion toward first strikes, there is a high escalatory automatism; it is the very reproduction of a significant part of the American culture, of the Wild West situation: draw quickly and survive! The colt corres
ponds to launchers, the endangered existence of single people corresponds to the endangered existence of towns or whole areas. Every person who has practical experience with computers knows that decisions under stress of tired people, such as in prolonged warfare, with limited information
leads (even if the person remains calm) to programming errors. And even in peace time there have been some quite alarming failures in the warning and alertness systems.
Imagine that such a failure occurs during a real crisis;
it might trigger fatal consequences.
The number of nuclear disasters as well as of natural di
sasters depends to a marked extent upon the vulnerability of a society. The vulnerability of an industrial society with a pronounced division of labor is, in part, an infor
mation problem. If 10% of a particular industry is destroyed, production normally drops by more than 10%. Organization
may be the decisive factor: although Germany suffered the greatest capacity impairment of the entire war in 1944, production continued. Production collapsed in 1945 and expanded by 50% within the half year following the monetary reform of 1948, i.e., with no growth in capacity as such
(Reich, 1971:260).
The organizational aspect is, of course, the problem of adequately handling information. The above example indicates the ambivalent character of the transition towards an information society.
Life can be harder, more monotonous and more risky in a variety of situations, such as, at place of work, in mili
tary operations and even in a highly modernized household.
But at the same time the very capabilities of refined data processing using new electronic devices significantly
lowers risks, optimizes efficiency and considers ergono- metric viewpoints.
In the place of work it has been said repeatedly that com
puters or robots destroy jobs, but also that they create new markets and new jobs. Both are true. Dirrheimer et a l . (1980) evaluated different consequences in different sectors of the economy. They summarized their findings as follows:
computers tend to create and destroy about an equal share of positions. They create jobs that are partly better and partly worse from an ergonometric point of view. But at the very beginning of a new design it is easier to introduce ergonometric considerations. The monotonous way of pro
ducing complex structures is due to the easy duplication of information. Lack of energy or resources need not be a common feature of the information society. The imminent introduction of microprocessors for a more stringent organ
ization and control of labor will alter an even greater number or working positions than in the past. The high
division of labor and efficient working organizations might, e.g., allow the introduction of new forms of employing labor;
e.g., a broader introduction of part time jobs, and this in turn might be a major step toward the equality of the sexes, due to equal duties and opportunities, where both women (in cases where there are no family commitments) and men work less than 40, but more than 20 hours.
The transformation of information density can be used to achieve a systematic record of technical progress in con
sumer goods and services. One can, for example, compare a black-and-white photograph (which is viewed for several
seconds) with a color movie or stereo. The magnitude of the informative components stored in different media, their possible recall and applicability must all be evaluated.
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Before examining the extent to which different elements of information can be related and combined, it is meaningful to establish criteria limiting the analysis to combinations of probable significance. The rate of technical progress necessitates a corresponding growth in the technical and social capacities for turnover of information. If the relationship between information gain and information in
vestment takes an unfavorable turn, organizational problems will result. The ability of human beings to cope with
risks and stress is a function of human education and cul
ture. If we fight "technology1’, in all its manifestations this will be a running fight. Rather we should integrate technology into our cultural development. We then have a chance to control the impact of progressive technological change from an ethical viewpoint.
Actual crises in society or on some societal levels
(individuals, business, warfare etc.) include informational problems. The proper handling of rising information ratios in society requires the enhancement of human ability
to understand and cope with - not merely adapt to - the physical and social environemnt. The "nervous breakdowns"
of societies due to information overload have a striking parallel to the nervous breakdown of individuals who are overwhelmed by this inflow.
5. References Ashby, Ross W.
An Introduction to Cybernetics New York, Wiley, 1956
deutsch: Einführung in die Kybernetik Suhrkap, Frankfurt, 1974
Cherry, Colin
On Hunan Communication Wiley, 1957, 3rd ed. 1978 Collins, John M.
U.S.-Soviet Military Balance, Concepts and Capabilities, 1960-1980
Washington, 1981 Deutsch, Karl W.
Nerves of Government Free Press 1973
deutsch: Politische Kybernetik, Modelle und Perspek
tiven
3. Auflage: Freiburg, Rombach 1976 Deutsch, Karl W.
On Theories, Taxonomies and Models as Communication Codes for Organizing Information. In: Behavioral Science 11:1 (Jan. 1966), pp. 1 — 17
Deutsch, Karl W.
On the Utility of Indicator Systems
IIVG Papers: reprints PV/78-10, Veröffentlichungsreihe des Internationalen Instituts für Vergleichende Gesell
schaftsforschung (IIVG), Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin Deutsch, Karl W.
Das Wachstum des Wissens und die' Lernfähigkeit der Menschen
IIVG PV/79-9, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (1978a) Deutsch, Karl W. and Bruno Fritsch
Über Probleme und Methoden der Komplexitätsreduktion zur Informationsverarbeitung für Überlebensstrategien IIVG. PR/79-1, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin (1979)
Deutsch, Karl W. and Dieter Senghaas Die Brüchige Vernunft von Staaten
in: Senghaas D. (Hrsg.): Kritische Friedensforschung Frankfurt 1971, pp. 105-163
Dirrheimer, Angela, Gert Hartmann, and Arndt Sorge
Qualitative Veränderungen der Arbeit durch neue Infor
mationstechnik
Internationales Institut für Management, Wissenschafts
zentrum Berlin IIM/80-3 (1980)
20
Freedom of Information Act
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