Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict

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FROM CONFLICT TO PEACE

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1 Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict

to Peace

Edited by

CARSTEN STAHN JENS IVERSON

and

JENNIFER S. EASTERDAY

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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom

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C.S.

For Kate, Freya, and Ada J.I.

For my family J.E.

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For many years, the Jus Post Bellum Project has updated and further enlightened prac- titioners and researchers on the theoretical framework and practical consequences of jus post bellum and its link to sustainable peace. Within the context of this discourse, the environment and the exploitation of natural resources have not been the centre of attention.

In this volume, Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson and Jennifer S. Easterday have chosen to focus on environmental protection as a more visible part of jus post bellum. This is an important and welcome choice. Not only is post bellum environmental protection a conditio sine qua non for the rebuilding of a war- torn society, it is still an overlooked matter, only occasionally dealt with by the international community on a case- by- case basis. UN Environment (formerly UNEP) is doing crucial work through its Disasters and Conflicts programme, but as a UN program, it needs a mandate from States when choosing which steps to take — and those steps need to be financed. That said, we see a light on the horizon. In the recently proposed Global Pact for the Environment, the proposed Article 19 provides that “States shall take pursuant to their obligations under international law all feasible measures to protect the environment in relation to armed conflicts.”1

In an attempt to corroborate that post- war environmental protection is not solely a policy matter but also a legal matter, a seminar was arranged by the Jus Post Bellum Project in the Hague in 2014. I was privileged to attend that seminar and listen to the interesting and pioneering research presented. This volume is in part a further elabora- tion of some of the research presented there. But it also contains more recent research that assists us to deepen our understanding of this complex issue.

The result is a comprehensive and impressive volume that presents up- to- date research and comments on environmental protection of jus post bellum. It is fair to say that this volume is the first of its kind. It is needed and welcome.

Following an excellent and helpful introduction, the volume is divided into four parts: Foundations, Legal Norms and Frameworks, Tension and Dilemmas and Remedying and Preventive Damage and Harm. It contains valuable tables of legal cases, treaties and other documents as well as a list of abbreviations. It is a proper piece of aca- demic work. But it is more than that. It fills a gap.

When the United Nations International Law Commission (ILC) decided to place the topic Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts on its agenda, it did so as a result of a growing environmental apprehension among States, international organizations, such as the ICRC and civil society, the latter represented for exam- ple by the Environmental Law Institute. It was out of concern “that the environment

1 Presented by Laurent Fabius, President of the Conseil constitutionnel, Former President of the COP21, and President of the Pact Experts Group, to President Macron in Paris 24 June 2017. Available at http://

pactenvironment.org, last accessed 31 July 2017.

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continues to be the silent victim of modern warfare” that UNEP and the Environmental Law Institute “undertook a joint assessment of the state of the existing legal framework protecting natural resources and the environment during armed conflict” in 2009. The result was the UNEP’s report, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict – An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (2009). The report suggested that the ILC

“examine the existing international law for protecting the environment during armed conflict and recommend how it can be clarified, codified and expanded”.2

Although the title of the UNEP Report indicates that the focus of the report is environmental protection “during” armed conflict, the innovative approach of the report was to look at other areas than international humanitarian law, namely environmental law, human rights and international criminal law. While the report does not refer to jus post bellum, the references to the post- war consequences for the environment and natu- ral resources were plentiful. The jus post bellum was ever- present.

When the ILC takes up a new topic, it does so on the basis of its mandate. The focus must be on progressive development of international law or its codification. At the same time the Commission should not restrict itself to traditional topics, but should also consider those that reflect new developments in international law and pressing con- cerns of the international community as a whole. It was on this basis the Commission took up the topic of Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict.

When I was appointed Special Rapporteur for the topic I suggested that the work should focus on three temporal phases: before, during and after armed conflict. It seemed to be the only practical way to move the topic forward. At the same time it was evident that the temporal phases could not be entirely separated from each other. The pre- conflict phase and the post- conflict phase had much in common if viewed through a legal lens. The “during armed conflict phase” was already regulated through the law of armed conflict. Even if the existing environmental protection was not strong enough, there was little prospect of modifying that particular body of law.

Concurrently the Commission had recognised that [t] he existence of an armed conflict does not ipso facto terminate or suspend the operation of treaties as between States parties to the conflict or as between a State party to the conflict and a State that is not.3 The Commission had presented an indicative list of treaties that involves an implica- tion that they continue in operation, in whole or in part, during armed conflict.4 This list included treaties for the international protection of human rights, international protection of the environment, international watercourses and related installations and facilities, and treaties relating to aquifers and related installations and facilities among others. It was clear that the law applicable during armed conflict was wider than merely the lex specialis on the law of armed conflict. Legal principles and rules are often inter- linked throughout all phases of a conflict.

2 UNEP, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict – An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (2009), Recommendation 3, p. 53.

3 ILC, Draft articles on the effect of armed conflict on treaties, Article 3. Available at http:// legal.un.org/

docs/ ?path=../ ilc/ texts/ instruments/ english/ draft_ articles/ 1_ 10_ 2011.pdf&lang=EF, last accessed 31 July 2017.

4 Article 7 (Continued operation of treaties resulting from their subject- matter).

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From a more practical perspective every topic the ILC places on its agenda needs to be confined. It cannot cover all angles or all aspects. The ILC decided not to address root causes of armed conflict, natural resources, protection of cultural property per se, or peacebuilding, to give but a few examples. Many of these issues are dealt with by other UN bodies, such as the Security Council and the Peacebuilding Commission. It is still an open question whether the Commission will proceed to define “environment”

or to address in more detail issues of liability and responsibility.

In addressing environmental protection in relation to armed conflicts, the pre- and post- armed conflict phases are of crucial importance. A post- war situation is legally complex: matters such as establishing the critical time and dates of conduct, clarifying applicable legal subjects, liability, responsibility, compensation, remediation, statutes of limitation — these are but a few matters that need to be addressed. At the same time it is obvious that the environment will not be repaired through a lengthy court proce- dure — as important as that may be. Innovative jus post bellum is required.

Sustainable peace cannot be achieved if environmental consequences are disre- garded. In this context, women play a crucial role and need to be actively involved.

This is a matter of law and justice. This comprehensive volume will add to the debate, and provide a space for further discussions on approaches in transitions from conflict to peace. The contributions show that jus post bellum clearly links into the pre- conflict and during armed conflict phases. I envy those who have not yet read the book, but will shortly be enlightened by it.

Ambassador Marie G. Jacobsson Former Member of the United Nations International Law Commission

and Special Rapporteur for the topic: Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts 2013–2016 July 2017

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This volume is the continuation of a collaborative research effort led by the editors, known as the Jus Post Bellum Project. This project investigates whether and how a con- temporary jus post bellum may facilitate greater fairness and sustainability in conflict termination and peacemaking.

Many of the contributions grew out of expert seminars on jus post bellum and the environment organized by the Project at the Peace Palace in June 2014. The conference and the project were made possible by the kind support of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) who provided the funding for this research through a Vidi grant for the Jus Post Bellum Project. The research is part of the broader research programme of the Leiden Law School on ‘Exploring the Frontiers of International Law’.

We would like to thank all contributors to this volume for their care, dedication, and efforts to provide fresh thinking on the theme of jus post bellum, and their openness to editorial suggestions. We would also like to express our gratitude to other individuals who contributed to the creation of this volume, particularly Marie Jacobsson. This work would not be possible without the support of the Grotius Centre for International Legal Studies at Leiden University, which hosts the Project. In particular we would like to thank Jordan Hawthorne for her invaluable assistance.

At Oxford University Press we would like to thank Emma Endean- Mills and Merel Alstein for supporting this project and ensuring publication of this volume. We hope that this work will contribute to broader discourse and concrete improvements in environmental protection and transitions to peace.

Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson, Jennifer S. Easterday, March 2017

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Preface vii Marie G. Jacobsson

Table of Cases xix

Table of Legislation xxv

Abbreviations xxxvii

List of Contributors xli

Introduction: Protection of the Environment and Jus Post Bellum:

Some Preliminary Reflections 1

Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson, and Jennifer S. Easterday

I.1 State- of- the- Art 1

I.2 Jus Post Bellum and Environmental Protection 5 I.3 The ILC Draft Principles on the Protection of the Environment

in Relation to Armed Conflicts 11

I.4 Content of the Book 15

I.5 Not a Conclusion 24

I. FOUNDATIONS

1. Considerations in Framing the Environmental Dimensions

of Jus Post Bellum 29

Carl Bruch

1.1 Introduction 29

1.2 Jus Post Bellum and Environmental Peacebuilding 30

1.3 Challenges Ahead 38

2. Defining the Environment: Environmental Integrity 40 Cymie R. Payne

2.1 Introduction 40

2.2 The Classic Approach in International Law 44

2.3 Environmental Integrity 62

2.4 Lessons for Jus Post Bellum 68

II. LEGAL NORMS AND FRAMEWORKS 3. The Ability of Environmental Treaties to Address Environmental

Problems in Post- Conflict 73

Britta Sjöstedt

3.1 Introduction 73

3.2 Problems in Environmental Protection Work Related to Armed Conflicts 74 3.3 Environmental Treaties’ Alternative Approach 77

3.4 Conclusions 90

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4. The Environment and Armed Conflict: Employing General Principles to

Protect the Environment 93

Kirsten Stefanik

4.1 Introduction 93

4.2 The Power of Principles: General Principles of International Law 95 4.3 The Role of General Principles in International Law 98

4.4 International Environmental Law 102

4.5 The Precautionary Principle 106

4.6 Precaution and Proportion: The Precautionary Principle Versus

International Humanitarian Law 113

4.7 Principles of IEL in Jus Post Bellum 115

4.8 Conclusion 117

5. Using a Framework of Human Rights and Transitional Justice

for Post- Conflict Environmental Protection and Remediation 119 Karen Hulme

5.1 Introduction 119

5.2 Post- Conflict Legal Frameworks 120

5.3 Environmental Damage as a Human Rights Issue 123 5.4 Environmental Damage as a Post- Conflict Human Rights Issue 126

5.5 Conclusions 141

6. The Law of Pillage, Conflict Resources, and Jus Post Bellum 143 Olivia Radics and Carl Bruch

6.2 Background 146

6.3 The Law of Pillage and Jus Post Bellum 151

6.4 Conclusion: Alternative Avenues for Accountability and Prevention 167 7. Standard- setting Practices for the Management of Natural Resources in

Conflict- Torn States: Constitutive Elements of Jus Post Bellum 169 Daniëlla Dam- de Jong

7.2 The Role of Natural Resources in Fuelling Armed Conflict

in West Africa and the DRC 170

7.3 Standards Developed in UN Security Council Resolutions 175 7.4 Implementation of Standards in the Mandates

of Peacekeeping Operations 185

7.5 Implementation of Standards in Management Reform Programmes 188

7.6 Lessons for Jus Post Bellum 190

8. Environmental Implications of Disarmament: The CWC Case 192 Ayṣe- Martina Böhringer and Thilo Marauhn

8.1 The CWC Obligation to Disarm 192

8.2 Environmental Implications of Chemical Disarmament 194

8.3 From Fragmentation to Integration 195

8.4 The Syrian Case 199

8.5 Lessons Learned 201

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9. Legal Protection of the Environment: The Double Challenge of

Non- International Armed Conflict and Post- Conflict Peacebuilding 203 Dieter Fleck

9.2 Environmental Obligations in Non- International Armed Conflict 205

9.3 Environmental Obligations Post- Conflict 215

9.4 Conclusions 218

10. Eco- Struggles: Using International Criminal Law to Protect the

Environment During and After Non- International Armed Conflict 220 Matthew Gillett

10.2 Environmental Harm During and After Armed Conflicts 222 10.3 The Application of International Criminal Law to Environmental

Harm During Non- International Armed Conflicts 224 10.4 Extending Environmental Protections to Non- International

Armed Conflicts 234

10.5 Accountability for Environmental Harm as a Facet of Jus Post Bellum 248

10.6 Conclusion 252

III. TENSIONS AND DILEMMAS 11. Reparation for Environmental Damage in Jus Post Bellum:

The Problem of Shared Responsibility 257

Ilias Plakokefalos

11.2 The Bundle of Primary Obligations and their Relevance to Shared

Responsibility and Reparation 259

11.3 Shared Responsibility and Reparation 265

11.4 Concluding Remarks 272

12. Conflict, Cash, and Controversy: Protecting Environmental Rights

in Post- Conflict Settings 274

Jennifer S. Easterday and Hana Ivanhoe

12.1 Introduction: Sustainable Development, Environmental

Protection, and Jus Post Bellum 274

12.2 Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Degradation 277 12.3 Ensuring Corporate Social Responsibility and Respect

for Human and Environmental Rights in Post- Conflict Countries 279 12.4 UN and International Financial Organizations 290 12.5 Challenges and Gaps in Existing Frameworks Addressing

Environmental Degradation Resulting from External Involvement

in Post- Conflict Settings 293

12.6 Conclusions 297

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13. Private Security Companies and Other Private Security Service Providers (PSCs) and Environmental Protection

in Jus Post Bellum: Policy and Regulatory Challenges 299 Onita Das and Aneaka Kellay

13.2 PSCs and Environmental Issues: An Overview 300 13.3 PSCs: Law and Policy and its Relevance to Environmental

Protection— an Overview 305

13.4 Law and Policy in Practice: Attaching Liability for PSC Wrongdoing 315

13.5 Conclusion 323

IV. REMEDYING AND PREVENTING DAMAGE AND HARM

14. Developments in the Law of Environmental Reparations:

A Case Study of the UN Compensation Commission 329 Cymie R. Payne

14.2 Constitution of the UNCC and Choice of Civil or Criminal Law 333 14.3 Structure, Procedures, and Substantive Law 337 14.4 UNCC Environmental Reparations and Jus Post Bellum 360 14.5 What Jus Post Bellum Adds to Environmental Integrity 364

14.6 Conclusion 365

15. Victims of Environmental Harm During Conflict:

The Potential for ‘Justice’ 367

Merryl Lawry- White

15.2 The Environmental Imperative 369

15.3 The Patchwork of Relevant Protections 371

15.4 The Parameters of Reparation 379

15.5 Implementation: Institutions, Considerations, and Precedents 387

15.6 Conclusions 394

16. Post- Conflict Mine Action: Environment and Law 396 Ursign Hofmann and Pascal Rapillard

16.1 Introduction: Nexus Between Peacebuilding, Mine Action,

and the Environment 396

16.2 Normative Framework 398

16.3 Environmental Impact of Remnants of Conflict on Land 404 16.4 Environmental Impact of Mine Clearance on Land 406 16.5 Measures to Ensure Mine Clearance on Land Does

No Harm to the Environment 408

16.6 Challenges and Ways to Address Liability for Environmental Degradation and Damage to Individuals from Remnants

of Conflict and their Removal 409

16.7 Conclusion 418

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17. ‘After the War is Before the War’: The Environment, Preventive Measures Under International Humanitarian Law, and their

Post- Conflict Impact 420

Anne Dienelt

17.2 Preventive Measures Under IHL 422

17.3 Preventive Measures Under IHL and their Post- Conflict Impact 431

17.4 Conclusion 436

18. Reframing the Remnants of War: The Role of the International Law

Commission, Governments, and Civil Society 438

Doug Weir

18.2 Context 439

18.3 The Historic Decoupling of the Environment from Mine Action 440 18.4 The Emergence of the Toxic Remnants of War Framing 442 18.5 The ILC’s Draft Principle on the Toxic and Hazardous

Remnants of War 444

18.6 The ILC’s Other Post- Conflict Draft Principles that Intersect

with Toxic Remnants of War 450

18.7 Conclusion 453

Index 457

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n denotes a footnote reference

PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL COURTS International Court Of Justice (ICJ)

Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19 June 2012, ICJ Reports 639 . . . .128n64 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

(Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, ICJ Reports 43 . . . 242n123, 270 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda), Judgment, 19 December

2005, ICJ Reports 168 . . . .123n29, 145, 147, 158– 9, 173– 4, 173n21, 231– 2, 237, 373, 376, 382 Case Concerning the Gabčikovo- Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia), Judgment, 25

September 1997, ICJ Reports 7 . . . 197, 354, 369, 379n69 Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v Nicaragua),

Judgment, 16 December 2015, ICJ Reports 358 . . . .197, 387 Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v Costa Rica),

Judgment, 16 December 2015, ICJ Reports 358 . . . .197, 387 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v Albania) Merits

[1949] ICJ Rep 4 . . . 266, 415– 16 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South

West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory

Opinion, 21 June 1971, ICJ 16 . . . .158 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,

Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, ICJ Reports 136 . . . .123n29, 361n209, 376n43 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 8 July 1996, ICJ Reports

1996 . . . 2n12, 9, 9n55, 16, 40– 1, 46, 68, 93– 4, 105, 123n29, 197, 229n53, 259– 60, 377, 378, 426 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v USA)

(Merits), Judgment of 27 June 1986, ICJ Reports 147 . . . .415– 16 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark; Federal

Republic of Germany v Netherlands) Judgment, 20 February 1969, ICJ Reports 3 . . . . 96, 96n20, 238n102 Nuclear Tests Case Order (New Zealand v France), Order, 22 September

1995 [1995] ICJ Rep 288 . . . .106, 112 Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay), Judgment, 20 April 2010, ICJ

Reports 113 . . . 70, 112– 13, 197, 260n28, 379n69 Right of Passage Over Indian Territory (Portugal v India), Judgment, 12 April 1960, ICJ

Reports 6 . . . 100, 100n59 South- West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v South Africa; Liberia v South Africa), Judgment, 18 July

1966 (Second Phase) ICJ Reports 6 . . . 96 International Criminal Court (ICC)

Decision on the Prosecution’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan

Ahmad Al Bashir, ICC- 02/ 05– 01/ 09, 4 March 2009 . . . .126n56 Prosecutor v Bemba Gombo, ICC- 01/ 05- 01/ 08- 803, 21 March 2016 1 . . . .49n52

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Prosecutor v Katanga, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, Trial Chamber II,

ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 07, 7 March 2014 . . . .165, 237 Prosecutor v Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, Trial

Chamber I, ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 06- 2842, 14 March 2012 . . . .223, 224 Prosecutor v Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 06- 3129, 3

March 2015 . . . 384, 385– 386 Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges,

(ICC- 01/ 04- 01/ 10- 465- Red, Pre- T.Ch. I, 16 December 2011) 2 . . . .36n92 Prosecutor v Ntaganda, Public redacted version of Prosecutor’s Pre- Trial Brief,

Trial Chamber VI, ICC- 01/ 04- 02/ 06- 503- Conf- AnxA, 9 March 2015 . . . .223 Situation in Darfur, The Sudan, ICC- 02/ 05-152, Summary of Prosecution’s Application

under Article 58, 14 July 2008 . . . 225, 225n31, 226 International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)

Advisory Opinion on Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and

Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area, ITLOS Reports, 1 February 2011 . . . 70 Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)

Iron Rhine Railway (Belgium v Netherlands) (2005) 27 RIAA 35 . . . .113 Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow, PCIJ Series A No. 9, 26 July 1927 . . . .8– 9n49, 42, 265, 265n56, 352, 354, 380, 382 Diversion of Water from Meuse (Netherlands v Belgium), PCIJ Series A/ B No. 70, 28 June 1937 . . .97 World Trade Organization (WTO)

EC - Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones) (Canada and United States v European Community), 16 January 1998, AB- 1997- 4, WTO Doc WT/ DS26/ AB/ R and WT/ DS48/ AB/ R . . . 108n123

AD HOC INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Prosecutor v Boškoski, Case No. IT- 04- 82- T, Judgment, Trial Chamber, 10 July 2008 . . . .224 Prosecutor v Delalić et al, Case No. IT- 96- 21- T, Trial Judgment, 16 November 1998 . . . .147n32 Prosecutor v Furundžija, Case No. IT- 95- 17/ 1- T, Judgment, 10 December 1998 . . . .101, 102 Prosecutor v Karadžić, Case No. IT- 95- 5/ 18, Judgment, 24 March 2016 . . . .226n32 Prosecutor v Kunarać and Others, Case No. IT- 96- 23- A, Appeals Chamber, 12 June 2002 . . . .153 Prosecutor v Kupreškić, Case No. IT- 95- 16- T, Judgment, 14 January 2000 . . . 95 Prosecutor v Kupreškić, Case No. IT- 95- 16- T,Judgment, 14 January 2000 . . . 24n137, 97 Prosecutor v Naletelić and Martinović, IT- 98- 34- A, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, 3

May 2006 . . . .226n33 Prosecutor v Popović et al, Case No. ICTY- 05- 88, Trial Judgment, 10 June 2010 . . . .226n32 Prosecutor v Simic, Case No. IT- 95- 9- T, Judgment, 17 Oct 2003 . . . .147n27 Prosecutor v Tadić, Case No. IT- 94- I- AR72, Decision on the Defence Motion for

Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, 2 October 1995 . . . 2n4, 13, 220nn1– 2, 228n42, 235n87, 243 Prosecutor v Tolimir, Case No. IT- 05- 88/ 2, Trial Judgment, 12 December 2012 . . . .226n32 Eritrea– Ethiopia Claims Commission

Damages Claim, Final Award: Ethiopia’s Claims, UNRIAA XXVI 2009, 631 . . . 263, 265, 270 Decision 7, 27 July 2007 . . . .347

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Partial Award: Western Front, Aerial Bombardment and Related Claims— Eritrea’s

Claims, 19 December 2005, RIAA XXVI, 291 . . . 373, 382– 3 International Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Prosecutor v Barayagwiza et al, ICTR- 99- 52- T, Judgment and Sentence,

Trial Chamber I, 3 December 2003 . . . .160 Prosecutor v Musema, ICTR- 96- 13- A, Judgment and Sentence,

Trial Chamber I, 16 November 2001 . . . .160, 161 Prosecutor v Nahimana, ICTR- 99- 52- T, Judgment, Trial Chamber I, 3 December 2003 . . . .160 Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL)

Case Against New TV S.A.L. Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat, STL- 14- 05/ PT/ AP/

ARI26.1, Decision On Interlocutory Appeal Concerning Personal Jurisdiction In

Contempt Proceedings, 2 October 2014 . . . .224n25 Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)

Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu

(the AFRC Accused), Judgment (SCSL- 04- 16- T, 20 June 2007) . . . .151 Prosecutor v Charles Ghankay Taylor, Judgment Summary, SCSL- 03- 1- T, 26 April 2012 . . . .161 International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg (and subsequent tribunals)

Hostages case (US v List et al), US Military Tribunal V, 19 February 1948 . . . .154n94 IG Farben case (US v Krauch et al), US Military Tribunal VI, 29 July 1948 . . . 147n29, 150,

150nn61– 2, 159, 160, 318– 19 In re Krupp and Others, US Military Tribunal, Judgment of 30 June 1948, 15 AD 620,

Case No. 214 . . . 155, 159, 160 Major War Criminals Trial, International Military Tribunal, 1 October 1946, 6

Fed. Rules Dec. (1947) 69 . . . .157 Trial of Alois and Anna Bommer and their Daughters, Permanent Military Tribunal,

Metz, 19 February 1947, 9 Law Report of Trials of War Criminals 64 . . . 160, 160n145 Trial of Erich Heyer and Six Others (Essen Lynching case), British Military Court

for the Trial of War Criminals, Essen, 22 December 1945, 1 Law Reports

of Trials of War Criminals 88– 92 . . . 160n145 US v Flick et al, US Military Tribunal IV, 22 December 1947 . . . 157, 159, 160 Zyklon B case (Trial of Bruno Tesch and Two Others), British Military Court,

Hamburg, 8 March 1946, Law Report of Trials of War Criminals 93 . . . .161 Other Ad Hoc Tribunals

Lac Lanoux Arbitration (France v Spain), Arbitral Tribunal (1957)

12 RIAA 281, 24 ILR 101 . . . .61n114 Trail Smelter case (United States v Canada), Arbitral Tribunal, Montreal (1941) 3

RIAA 1907 . . . .18n114, 61n114, 196, 357, 379

REGIONAL COURTS European Court of Human Rights

Akdivar et al v Turkey, Judgment, App no. 99/ 1995/ 605/ 693, ECtHR,1 April 1998 . . . 388n127 Al- Skeini and Others v the United Kingdom, App no. 55721/ 07, ECtHR, 7 July 2011 . . . .123n29 Guerra and Others v Italy, App no. 116/ 1996/ 735/ 932, ECtHR, 19 February 1998 . . . .125, 136 Hassan v United Kingdom, App no. 29750/ 09, ECtHR, 16 September 2014 . . . 123n29, 128, 377 Kyrtatos v Greece, App no. 41666/ 98, ECtHR, 22 May 2003 . . . .377 López Ostra v Spain, App no. 16798/ 90, ECtHR, 9 December 1994. . . .136

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Oneryildiz v Turkey, App no. 48939/ 99, ECtHR, 30 November 2004 . . . .124 Taşkin and Others v Turkey, App no. 46117/ 99, ECtHR, 10 November 2004 . . . .136, 376 African Commission on Human Rights

COHRE (Sudan Human Rights Organisation & Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions) v Sudan, AHRLR 153, 27 March 2009 . . . 124, 135, 141 Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and Interights v Egypt, AHRLR 90, 1 March 2011 . . . .135 SERAC (Social and Economic Rights Action Centre) and Another v Nigeria, Communication

no. 155/ 96 (Ogoni case), AHRLR 60, 27 October 2001 . . . . .124, 125, 135, 136, 309– 10, 377, 385 Inter- American Court of Human Rights

Case of the Plan de Sanchez Massacre v Guatemala, Judgment (Series C no. 105),

IACHR, 29 April 2004 . . . .376– 7 Case of the Saramaka People v Suriname (Series C no. 185), IACHR, 28

November 2007 . . . 136, 377, 393 Case of Velasquez- Rodriguez v Honduras (Series C no. 4), IACHR, 29 July 1988 . . . .381 Case of the Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v Paraguay (Series C no. 125),

IACHR, 17 June 2005 . . . .124 Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua, Judgment (Series C no. 79),

IACHR, 31 August 2001 . . . 376– 377 Rio Negro Massacres v Guatemala, Judgment (Series C no. 250), IACHR, 4

September 2012 . . . 384– 385

NATIONAL COURTS Netherlands

Prosecutor v Kouwenhoven, Netherlands, LJN: AY5160, Rechtbank’s- Gravenhage,

09/ 750001- 05 (28 July 2006) . . . .160 Prosecutor v Van Anraat, Netherlands, LJN: BA6734, Gerechtshof’s- Gravenhage,

2200050906- 2 (9 May 2007) . . . .160 Pakistan

Shehla Zia v WAPDA, PLD, 1994 Supreme Court 693 . . . 111n157 Singapore

NV de Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschaap v The War Damage Commission, 23 ILR 810

(Court of Appeal, Singapore 1956) . . . 155, 155n101, 157 South Africa

Mazibuko and Other v City of Johannesburg and Others (06/ 13865) 30 April 2008,

ZAGPHC 491 . . . .132 United Kingdom

Rustomjee v The Queen (1876) II QBD 74 . . . 48n44, 359n192 United States

Doe v Unocal Corporation, US Federal District Court, 110 F. Supp. 2d. 1294

(C.D. Cal. 2000), Judgment of 31 August 2000 . . . .319 Fantham v RONCO (2011) 1:2011cv00762 (DC District Court, April 20 2011) . . . .418 Jobes v KBR, US District Court for the District of Maryland (5 April 2010) 7 . . . 303, 317– 18 Re KBR Inc Burn Pit Litigation, US District Court for the District of Maryland,

no. 8:09- md- 02083- RWT, 8 September 2010 . . . .317

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Re KBR Inc Burn Pit Litigation, US Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, no. 13- 143,

Judgment of 7 March 2014 . . . .317– 18 Presbyterian Church of Sudan v Talisman Energy, US District Court for the Southern

District of New York, 224 F.Supp.2d289, 19 March 2003 . . . .319 Presbyterian Church of Sudan v Talisman Energy, US Court of Appeals for the Second

Circuit, 582 F.3d 244, 2 October 2009 . . . .319 Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/ Dioxin et al v Dow Chemical Co. et al, 517

F.3d 76 (2d Circuit, 2008) . . . 53– 4n70

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INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

AND CONVENTIONS Aarhus Convention on Access to

Information, Public Participation in Decision- making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters 1998 . . . .136, 344 Art 9(4) . . . 345 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva

Conventions 1977. . . 29, 46, 50– 2, 57, 63, 160n145, 219, 228, 239– 40,

261– 2, 422 Art 1 . . . 152– 3n83 (2) . . . 213, 224n24 Art 4(2)(g) . . . 148 Art 6 . . . 422n12, 423n19 Art 15 . . . 239– 40n108 Art 18 . . . .422n12 Art 33 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 34 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 35 . . . .3– 4, 4n22, 50– 1, 50– 1n56, 311, 404, 441– 2 (3) . . . . . 2, 16, 45, 52, 57– 8, 203, 206,

218, 229, 239– 40, 239n107, 243, 245, 247, 261, 307, 372, 399, 410, 424, 424n26, 425– 6, 425nn29– 30, 427, 435– 6, 437 Art 36 . . . 420n2, 421– 2, 422n12,

430– 1, 431n71, 433– 6, 437 (1) . . . 23 Art 43 . . . .422n12 Art 51 . . . 404 (1) . . . . . . 431n71 Art 52(2). . . 427 Art 53 . . . .307– 8 Art 54 . . . 2, 232n72, 373, 382 Art 55 . . . .3– 4, 4n22, 13, 16, 45,

50– 1n56, 51– 3, 55, 58– 9, 239n107, 243, 247, 307, 336– 7, 399,

424n26, 441– 2 (1). . . . . 51, 203, 206, 218,

229, 261, 372, 410, 423n16, 424, 425– 6, 427, 437

(2). . . . . 2, 51 Art 56 . . . .47, 47nn37– 8,

239– 40n108, 422n12 (1). . . . . .239– 40n108 (2). . . . . .239– 40n108 Art 57 . . . 421 Art 58 . . . .422n12 Art 59 . . . 23n132, 428– 9, 430 (2). . . . . 428 Art 60 . . . .23n132, 428, 429– 30,

431, 432– 3, 5437 Art 66 . . . .422n12 Art 74 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 78 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 79 . . . .422n12 Art 80 . . . .422n12 Art 81 . . . .422n12 Art 82 . . . 422n12, 423n19 Art 83 . . . .420n2, 422n12, 423n19 Art 84 . . . 422n12, 423n19 Art 85 . . . 239– 40n108, 420n3, 432n74 Art 86 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 87 . . . 420n3, 432n74 (2). . . . . 423n19 Art 88 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 89 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 90 . . . 420n3, 432n74 Art 91 . . . 251, 382, 420n3, 432n74 Annex I. . . .422n12 Annex II . . . .422n12 Additional Protocol II to the Geneva

Conventions 1977. . . .240, 373, 422 Preamble, para 4 . . . 213 Art 1(1). . . .207n14 Art 4(2)(g) . . . .207, 214 Art 14 . . . 207, 232– 3, 232n72 Antarctic Treaty 1959 . . . .238n101 Anti- Personnel Mine Convention

1997 . . . .2– 3n12, 11, 23, 137, 212, 401, 401n28, 410– 11, 417, 445 Art 5 . . . .138, 410 Art 6 . . . .410– 11 Art 7(1)(f) . . . 401 Art 8 . . . 410 Cartagena Plan of Action for 2010– 14. . . . 401 n denotes a footnote reference

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Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa 1991 . . . .197– 8 Barcelona Convention for the Protection

of the Mediterranean Sea Against

Pollution 1976 . . . 200 Basel Convention on the Control of

Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their

Disposal 1989 . . . .197– 8 Protocol on Liability and

Compensation 1999. . . 198, 265– 6n59 Biodiversity Convention 1992 . . . 103n80, 275 Art 3 . . . .196n21 Charter of the International Military

Tribunal (Nuremberg) 1945

Art 6(b). . . 148 Charter of the United Nations

1945 . . . .29, 175– 6 Art 24 . . . 175n27, 199 Art 41 . . . 176 Art 103 . . . 199 Chemical Weapons Convention

1993 . . . 2– 3n12, 18– 19, 192– 202, 262, 374 Art I . . . .193– 4 Art II. . . .193– 4 (5). . . . . 193n9 Art IV . . . .193– 4 (6). . . . . 194 (10). . . . . 195 (11). . . . 194– 5 (12). . . . . 194 (16). . . . 194 Art V. . . .193– 4 (11). . . . 195 Art VII . . . .193– 4 (3). . . . . 195 Annex on Implementation and

Verification . . . .193– 4 Pt IV(A) . . . 193– 4 para c.13 . . . 196 CITES (Convention of International Trade

in Endangered Species) 1973 . . . 105 Art 2(1). . . 74– 5n8 App 1. . . 74– 5n8 Cluster Munitions Convention

2010 . . . 23, 137– 8, 401, 401n28, 410– 11, 445 Art 2(2). . . .138n143

Art 3(2). . . 401 Art 4 . . . 410 (1). . . . . 11 (2). . . . . 138 (4). . . . . 11, 138 Art 5 . . . .410– 11 Art 6 . . . .410– 11 Art 7(1)(f) . . . 401 Art 8 . . . 410 Convention Concerning the Protection

of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage see World Heritage Convention 1972

Convention on Long- range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 . . . 198 Art 2 . . . .378n59 Art 7 . . . .378n59 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions

on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons 1980 (CCW). . . 62n116, 240– 1,

262, 374, 401, 442, 445 Preamble. . . .240n113 Art 1 . . . 241 Protocol II on the Use of Mines,

Booby- Traps and Other Devices (Amended 1996) . . . 374 Art 10 . . . .2– 3n12, 138 Protocol III on the Use of Incendiary

Weapons . . . .62n116 Art 2(4) . . . 240n113 Protocol V on Explosive Remnants

of War 2003. . . 401– 2, 447, 448, 449, 453 Convention on Supplementary

Compensation for Nuclear Damage 1997 Annex, Art 3(5). . . .214– 15 Convention on the Law of the

Non- Navigational Uses of

International Watercourses 1997 . . . 379 Convention on the Prohibition of

Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques see ENMOD Convention Convention on the Prohibition of

the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction see Chemical Weapons Convention Convention on the Prohibition on the Use,

Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti- Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction see Anti- Personnel Mine Convention

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Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy 2004

Amending Protocol, Art 9 . . . .214– 15 Convention relative aux transports

internationaux ferroviaires 1980 . . . 198 ENMOD Convention 1977 . . . . 2, 16, 29, 45, 46, 47n37, 50, 57, 59– 60, 105, 206, 218, 219, 228, 244– 5, 262, 373– 4, 424, 425– 6, 442 Art 1 . . . 2n6, 53, 229, 245, 425– 6 (1). . . . . 203, 245n133 Art 2 . . . 53, 245n133 European Agreement Concerning the

International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland

Waterways 2000 . . . .198– 9 European Agreement Concerning the

International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road 1957 . . . .198– 9 Framework Convention on Climate

Change . . . 275 Art 5 . . . 41 Art 91 . . . 41 Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration

of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field . . . 422 Art 47 . . . 420n2, 423n19 Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration

of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea . . . 422 Art 48 . . . 420n2, 423n19 Geneva Convention III relative to the

Treatment of Prisoners of War . . . 422 Art 127 . . . 420n2, 423n19 Geneva Convention IV relative to the

Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 1949 . . . .46, 373, 422 Art 15 . . . .23n132 Art 33 . . . 23n132, 148, 231n70 Art 53 . . . .23n132 Art 144 . . . 420n2, 423n19 Art 147 . . . 154n95, 307, 336, 375 Geneva Conventions I- IV

(Common Articles) . . . 160n145, 307 Art 2 . . . 152– 3n83, 422 Art 3 . . . 61– 2, 152– 3n83, 207n14, 413 (3). . . . . 212 see also Additional Protocol I;

Additional Protocol II

Hague Convention IV respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land 1907 Art 3 . . . .214, 251, 382

Art 22 . . . .47n37 Hague Convention IX concerning

Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War 1907 . . . 148 Hague Convention X for the Adaptation to

Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention 1907 . . . 148 Art 21 . . . .148n40 Hague Declaration (IV, 3) concerning

Expanding Bullets 1899 . . . 212 Hague Regulations 1907, Annex to Hague

Convention IV . . . 46, 154– 8, 373 Art 22 . . . 47n37, 49n50 Art 23 . . . 47n37, 49n50 (g). . . . . 336 Art 25 . . . 49 Art 28 . . . .49, 148 Art 46 . . . 154n95, 155, 155n98 Art 47 . . . 148, 154n95, 231n70, 319 Art 52 . . . .154n95 Art 53 . . . 154n95, 156 (1). . . . . 155 Art 55 . . . .49, 49n51, 155– 7, 308n64 Art 56 . . . 49 International Convention on Civil Liability

for Oil Pollution Damage 1969. . . 379 Art 1(6). . . 265– 6n59 International Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights 1966

(ICCPR) . . . 122n21, 128 Art 1(2). . . .236– 7 Art 4 . . . 376 Art 6 . . . .124, 309 Art 17 . . . 311 Optional Protocol I. . . 412 International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights

1966 (ICESCR) . . . .120, 128, 141 Art 1(2). . . .236– 7 Art 2(1). . . 130 Art 11 . . . 130, 132n93 (1). . . . . 123– 4 (2). . . . . 123 Art 12 . . . .124, 310 (2)(b) . . . 124, 133– 4 Optional Protocol . . . 128 Art 8(4) . . . 130 International Whaling Convention

1946 . . . 105 Iraqi Special Tribunal Statute 2003

Art 2(b)(17) . . . 149 Ottawa Convention 1997 see Anti-

Personnel Mine Convention 1997

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Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare 1925 . . . .230n60 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of

International Importance 1971. . . 68, 79, 89– 90, 378– 9 Art 3 . . . 83 Art 4(1). . . .83n52 Rio Declaration on Environment and

Development 1992 . . . .103nn81– 2, 275, 378n58 Principle 3 . . . .260n28 Principle 10 . . . .136, 344, 394 Principle 15 . . . .107, 108 Principle 17 . . . 136 Principle 18 . . . .356n173 Principle 24 . . . .2, 222 Rome Statute of the International Criminal

Court . . . 46, 57, 239n104, 252 Preamble. . . .234n79 Art 6 . . . 225 (c). . . . . 225 Art 7 . . . 226 (1)(k) . . . 226 Art 8(2). . . 213– 14, 220n2 (a)(iv) . . . 149 (b)(iv) . . . 16, 19– 20, 45, 52– 3,

52– 3n66, 58– 9, 145– 6, 221, 228– 30, 234, 237– 8, 237n97, 239– 40, 244, 245, 246– 7, 248, 253, 335n39, 375 (b)(xiii) . . . .149, 230n55, 232, 233 (b)(xvi) . . . . 149, 149n52, 151, 230n57, 231 (b)(xvii) . . . 230n58 (b)(xviii) . . . 230n59 (b)(xxv) . . . 232 (e). . . . . 234 (e)(v) . . . 149– 50, 149n52, 230, 231 (e)(xii) . . . 149, 230 (e)(xiii) . . . 230, 238n98 (e)(xiv). . . 230, 238n98 (e)(xv) . . . 238n98 (f). . . . . 224n24 Art 8 bis . . . .227– 8 (2)(a) . . . 227 Art 9(1). . . .149n56 Art 10 . . . 239 Art 12 . . . .224n24 Art 13 . . . .224n24 Art 25 . . . .251n167 (1). . . . . 159 (3). . . . . 161

Art 28 . . . .251n167 (a). . . . . 160– 1 (b). . . . . 160– 1 Art 38 . . . 45 (1). . . . . 95 (a). . . . . 95 (b). . . . . 95 (c). . . . . .95, 96– 7 (d). . . . . 95 Statute of the International Court of Justice

Art 38(1). . . 242 (d). . . . . 242n123 Statute of the International Criminal

Tribunal for Rwanda 1994

Art 3 . . . 375 (1). . . . . 226 Art 4(f) . . . 149 Art. . . . . 6 (1). . . . . 251n167 (3). . . . . 251n167 Statute of the International Criminal

Tribunal for Yugoslavia 1993

Art 2(d). . . 375 Art 3 . . . 375 (e). . . . . 149 Art 5(i) . . . 226 Art 7

(1). . . . . 251n167 (3). . . . . 251n167 Statute of the Special Court for Sierra

Leone 2002

Art 3(f) . . . 149 Stockholm Declaration on the Human

Environment 1972

para 1 . . . 124 Principle 1 . . . .124, 376 Principle 21 . . . 18– 19n114, 196 Principle 26 . . . 50 Tlatelolco Treaty for the Prohibition of

Nuclear weapons in Latin America 1967 . . . .238n101 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in

the Atmosphere 1963 . . . .238n101 Treaty on the Prohibition of the

Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea- Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof 1971 . . . .238n101 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982

(UNCLOS). . . 200, 208– 9 Art 32 . . . .379n67 Art 56(2). . . 209

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Art 60(3). . . 209 Art 194 . . . .356n173 (2). . . . . 208 (3). . . . . 208 (4). . . . . 196n21 Art 234 . . . 209 Art 236 . . . 208, 259n16 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1948 . . . 412 Art 3 . . . 309 Vienna Convention for the Protection of

the Ozone Layer 1985 . . . 107 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for

Nuclear Damage 1963 . . . .379n66 Amending Protocol, Art IV(3) . . . .214– 15 Art IV(3) . . . .214– 15 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 Art 12(2). . . .248n151 Art 13(b). . . .248n151 Art 31(3). . . 101 Art 34 . . . .248n151 Waigani Convention to Ban the

importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous wastes within the South Pacific Region . . . .198n34 World Heritage Convention 1972 . . . 4, 17, 57,

64n129, 74, 74n6, 77– 92, 378– 9 Art 2 . . . .50, 78 Art 4 . . . .78, 81 Art 5 . . . .81, 82 Art 6(3). . . .50, 78 Art 11

(2). . . . . 78 (4). . . . . 78– 9, 79n30 Art 13

(1). . . . . 84n57 (7). . . . . 87 Art 15 . . . 84 Art 22 . . . 84 Operational Guidelines . . . .80n34 UNITED NATIONS INSTRUMENTS Security Council Resolutions

Resolution 232 (1966) concerning an import ban on certain natural

resources . . . .176n29 Resolution 253 (1968) concerning an

import ban on all commodities and products . . . .176n29

Resolution 660 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait situation . . . 330, 333n29 Resolution 661 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait

situation . . . 330, 333n29 Resolution 674 (1990) on the Iraq- Kuwait

situation . . . .333n29 Resolution 686 (1991) on the Iraq- Kuwait

situation . . . 2, 2n8, 60– 1, 222, 262– 3, 270, 330, 333– 4, 337, 339,

340, 345, 347, 355– 6, 391– 2, 414– 15 para 16 . . . 354 para 18 . . . .334n32 para 19 . . . .340– 1 Resolution 692 (1991) on the Iraq- Kuwait

situation . . . 333 para 3 . . . 334n32, 337 Resolution 705 (1991) on Iraq. . . 353– 4n157 Resolution 788 (1992) on an arms embargo

to Liberia . . . 177 Resolution 1173 (1998) concerning an

import ban on diamonds. . . .176n30 Resolution 1279 (1999) concerning the DRC 185 Resolution 1306 (2000) concerning an

import ban on diamonds from Sierra Leone . . . .176n30, 177n35, 178n37 Resolution 1343 (2001) concerning

Liberia . . . 171n9, 177– 8, 179 para 2(c) . . . 178 para 15 . . . 178 para 19 . . . 178 Resolution 1395 (2002) concerning

Liberia . . . 172n12, 178 Resolution 1408 (2002) concerning

Liberia . . . .178– 9 Resolution 1458 (2003) concerning

Liberia . . . .172n13 Resolution 1478 (2003) concerning

Liberia . . . 179 Resolution 1483 (2003) on the situation

between Iraq and Kuwait. . . 353– 4n157 Resolution 1493 (2003) concerning

an arms embargo on the

DRC . . . 87n79, 181– 2 Resolution 1509 (2003) concerning

Liberia . . . .184– 5 Resolution 1521 (2003) concerning an

import ban on diamonds from

Liberia . . . 172n14, 176n30, 177 Preamble. . . 177n34, 180

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Resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the DRC . . . .182n68 Resolution 1569 (2005) concerning the

DRC . . . .182n67 Resolution 1579 (2004) concerning

Liberia . . . .180– 1 para 3 . . . 180 Resolution 1607 (2005) concerning

Liberia . . . 180– 1, 185 Resolution 1647 (2005) concerning

Liberia . . . .172n16, 180– 1, 185, 189n113 Resolution 1689 (2006) concerning

Liberia . . . 181 Resolution 1698 (2006) concerning

the DRC . . . 182 Resolution 1753 (2007) concerning DRC . . . 181 Resolution 1756 (2007) concerning the

DRC . . . 184 para 2 . . . .186– 7 Resolution 1856 (2008) concerning the

DRC . . . .187, 223 para 4 . . . 187 Resolution 1857 (2008) concerning the DRC 182 Resolution 1896 (2009) concerning the

DRC . . . .182– 3 para 6 . . . .183n77 para 16 . . . .183n75 Resolution 1906 (2009) concerning the DRC 187 Resolution 1925 (2010) concerning the DRC 402 Resolution 1952 (2010) concerning the

DRC . . . .183, 187 para 7 . . . .183n79 para 16 . . . 187 Resolution 1961 (2010) concerning Liberia . 185 Resolution 1991 (2011) concerning the DRC

para 17 . . . 184n83, 187 Resolution 1996 (2011), Reports of the

Secretary- General on the Sudan. . . 403 Resolution 2021 (2011) concerning the

DRC . . . .175n25 Resolution 2053 (2012) concerning the

DRC . . . 184 Resolution 2078 (2012) concerning the DRC

Preamble. . . .184n83 Resolution 2098 (2013) on the DRC. . . 188 para 14 . . . .188n107 Resolution 2118 (2013) on Syrian chemical

weapons . . . .199– 201 Resolution 2136 (2014) concerning the

DRC . . . 175n26, 188 Resolution 2147 (2014) concerning the DRC

para 5 . . . .188n107

General Assembly Resolutions Resolution 1803 (XVII), Declaration on

Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 14 December 1962 . . . .236– 7 Resolution 2675 (XXV), Basic Principles

for the Protection of Civilian Populations in Armed Conflict, 9

December 1970. . . .123n29 Resolution 2997 (XXVII) following the

1972 Rio Conference on the Human Environment, 12

December 1972. . . .434– 5 Resolution 3435 (XXX) establishing the

UNEP . . . 441 Resolution 31/ 72 (1976) on the ENMOPD

Convention . . . 105 Resolution 41/ 128, Declaration on the

Right to Development, 4

December 1986. . . 123 Resolution 45/ 94, ‘Need to Ensure a

Healthy Environment for the Well- being of Individuals,’

14 December 1990 . . . 119 Resolution 46/ 216, 20 December

1991 . . . .356n173 Resolution 47/ 37, Protection of the

Environment in Times of Armed Conflict, 25 November

1992 . . . 244, 434n87 Resolution 47/ 151, International

cooperation to mitigate the

environmental consequences resulting from the situation between Iraq and Kuwait, 18 December 1992 . . . .356n173 Resolution 49/ 50 (1994) on the UN Decade

of International Law. . . 2 Resolution S- 19/ 2, Programme for the

Further Implementation of

Agenda 21, 19 September 1997. . . 108 Resolution 56/ 4 (2001) on the International

Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict . . . 219 Resolution 60/ 147, Basic Principles and

Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, 16 December 2005. . . 383– 4, 385 Art 11 . . . 383 Art 12 . . . 252, 252n169 Annex . . . 383

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Resolution ES- 10/ 17 (2007), Establishment of the United Nations Register of

Damage . . . .68n150 Resolution 64/ 292, The Human Right to

Water and Sanitation, 3 August 2010. . . 132 Resolution 69/ 212, Oil slick on Lebanese

shores, 29 December 2014. . . 222 World Heritage Committee Decisions

Decision 27 COM 7A.2, Doc.

WHC- 03/ 27.COM/ 24 . . . .87n80 Decision 28 COM 15A.3, Doc. WHC- 04/

28/ COM/ 26 . . . .82, 87 Decision 30 COM 7A.4, Doc. WHC- 06/

30.COM/ 19 . . . 82 Decision 30 COM 7A.7, UN Doc.

WHC- 06/ 30.COM/ 1 . . . .87n80 Decision 34 COM 7A.4, Doc.

WHC- 10/ 34.COM/ 20 . . . .82– 3 Compensation Committee Decisions

Decision . . . 1, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 1 337, 338n60 Decision 3, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 3, 23

October 1991. . . .361n210 Decision 7, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 7. . . 337– 8, 347, 349, 353 para 34 . . . 339 (b). . . . . 349 para 35 . . . .355– 6 (d). . . . . 355 para 37 . . . 345 Decision 10, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 10

(Procedural Rules) . . . 338n60, 340 Art 6 . . . 337 Art 16 . . . 341 Arts 18- 27 . . . 341 Art 28 . . . 341 Art 30 . . . 344 Art 35(1). . . 345 Art 41 . . . 342 Decision 13, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 13. . . 337 Decision 19, S/ AC.26/ 1991/ 19. . . 338, 338n58,

356– 7 Decision 46, S/ AC.26/ 1997/ 46. . . .345– 6 Decision 73, S/ AC.26/ 1999/ 73,

25 June 1999 . . . .353n156 Decision 100, S/ AC.26/ 2000/ 100,

19 June 2000 . . . .353n156 Decision 114, S/ AC.26/ Dec.114, 7

December 2000. . . 343 Decision 124, S/ AC.26/ 2001/ 124 . . . .343– 4 Decision 132, S/ AC.26/ Dec.132,

21 June 2001 . . . 359

Decision 226, S/ AC.26/ 2004/ 124 . . . 344 Decision 258, S/ AC.26/ Dec.258,

8 December 2005 . . . 360 Decision 269, S/ AC.26/ Dec.269, 7 April

2011 . . . 360 Decision 272, S/ AC.26/ Dec.272

(2014) . . . .353– 4 Decision 273, S/ AC.26/ Dec.273

(2015) . . . .353– 4 Intra- National Peace Accords

Abuja Peace Agreement 1995 . . . 171 Chapultepec Agreement between the

Government of El Salvador and the Frente Farabundo Mart í para la Liberacíon Nacional, 16 January 1992, A/ 46/ 864 116

Art 13 . . . .250n160 Art 17(12). . . .250n160 Colombian Peace Agreement, 2016 . . . . .122n23 Guatemalan Peace Agreements 1996 . . . 129 Lom é Accord (Peace Agreement between

the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone), S/ 1999/ 777 . . . 116 Northern Ireland Peace Agreement (Good

Friday Agreement), Belfast, 10 April 1998 . . . 116 Sun City Agreement (Final Act of the

Inter- Congolese Political

Negotiations), 2 April 2003 . . . 116 Rules/ Guidelines/ Other Miscellaneous Instruments

Basic Principles see General Assembly Resolution 60/ 147

Environment Assembly Resolution on the Protection of the Environment in Areas Affected by Armed Conflict, UN Doc. UNEP/ EA.2/ Res.15 . . . 450 Food and Agriculture Organization,

Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries . . . .111n157 Food and Agriculture Organization,

Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of

Tenure. . . .282– 3 Human Rights Council, Draft of a Possible

Convention on Private Military and Security Companies . . . 311– 12, 323 Art 3

(1). . . . . 322 (3). . . . . 312