Constitutional Movement
By Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi, Mashhad
"It would be a pity for 'Ali's
Scimitar to rust in sheath and
Mr. Dehkhodä's tongue to rest
in mouth."
Mohammad Qazvini
It is an interesting co-incidence that two notable critics and wits in
Persian language and literature, that is 'Obeyd Zäkäni and 'Ali-Akbar
Dehkhodä should both hail from Qazvin. Both of them have assailed the
inequities of their times with profound accuracy and perception. They
are possessed of powerful and precise intellect and sharply satirical pen
which they wield with maximum effectiveness. They have both glowed
as social critics in their own time and have relegated their names to
perpetuity. This article, however, deals with Dehkhodä, the more recent
of the two writers.
In the annals of Iranian constitutional history (1905—1909) the
Süre Esräfil, the most significant of Iranian political journals, is inse¬
parably linked with the name of Dehkhodä and his political comic
satire which was pubhshed regularly in that paper. The connection is so
much more poignant as Mirzä Jahängir Khän Süre Esräfil, one of the
two editors of the journal, lost his hfe in the cause of freedom^ and was so
memorably elegized by Dehkhodä, himself then in exile, in the famous
ode, "Remember the Extinct Taper, Remember." (Yäd 'är ze sham'e
mordeh yäd 'är.)*
'Ah Akbar Dehkhodä, was not only endowed with brilhant native
intelligence, he was also highly learned and accomplished, having bene¬
fited from the teachings of many outstanding contemporary scholars,
and accumulated a wealth of experience in the course of life. The
conditions prevaihng at the time of the Constitutional Revolution
1 "On 22nd Jomädä I, 1326. H. (June 22, 1908), Mirzä Jahängir Khän
Shiräzi was arrested by Mohammad 'Ali Mirzä's Cossaeks. On the 24th he
was Strangled in Bäghe Shäh." — 'Ali Akbar Dehldiodä.
2 This poem was published in Yverdon edition of the Süre Esräfil by
Dehkhodä and others.
118 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi
provided him with the opportunity to display his considerable talents
and gain fame by the use of his mighty pen. His most significant achieve¬
ment was that he placed his gift at the service of the people and in the
conflict between despotism and freedom, he sided with the nation.
Dehkhodä Hved to the ripe old age of seventy eight.* He was born in
Tehrän of parents belonging to Qazvin's middle-class landed gentry. He
lost his father at the age of ten but was raised under the auspices of his
guardian and mentor, Sheykh Gholäm- Hoseyn Borüjerdi, a renowned
scholiast, who influenced him greatly and most favorably. He then
studied at Tehrän College of Pohtical Science where he showed over¬
whelming promise in Persian literature, so much so, in fact, that he was
often delegated by Mohammad Hoseyn ForOghi, then a professor at that
institution, to teach some of his classes. It was at this college that he
gained acquaintance with modern sciences and acquaintance with the
French language. By an auspicious co-incidence, he was quartered in the
neighbourhood where ÄyatoUäh Häji Sheykh Hädi Najm-Äbädi hved
and received much benefit from his presence.
Later, in the company of Mo'ävenoddovleh Ghaffäri, the Iranian
ambassador to the Balkans, Dehkhodä went to Europe and hved there
for two years, mostly in Vienna, where he perfected his knowledge of
French, and was initiated into new disciplines and the ways of the modern
learning. This new insight accentuated his awareness of the backward¬
ness of his own people.
The most significant episode of his life began with his return from
Europe which was co-eval with the advent of the constitutional move¬
ment in Iran. Young Dehkhodä, fired with enthusiasm, joined the free¬
dom fighters and in collaboration with Jahängir Khän Shiräzi, and
Mirzä Qäsem Khän Tabrizi embarked upon the publication of the
Süre Esräfil.* This paper published humor and was a powerful and
effective critical organ and cited as its objectives "evolving the meaning
of Constitution, supporting the National Consultative Assembly, and
rendering aid to the peasants, the poor, and the oppressed", and "was
perhaps the first newspaper ever to be widely distributed by news-agents
and sold often by young children."* It was, therefore, a decisive factor in awakening the literate part of the people.
The most briUiant and popular section of the Süre Esräfil was that
which contained Dehkhodä's satirical articles appearing under the
title of "Idle Talk" (Charand-parand) and above Dehkhodä's nom de
' I297H. — 1375H. = 1879—1955 A.D.
* The first issue of the Süre Esräfil was published on Thursday, 17 Rabi' II, 1325 H. (May 30, 1907) after Iran became officially a constitutional state.
* Mohammad Mo'm: Farhange Färsl. Tehrän (1342—1347) 1963—68.
guerre, Dekhov.« These articles loveUed devastating attacks on contem¬
porary corruption. Moreover, Dehkhodä flouted the traditional stilted
style of prose, journalistic and otherwise, by adopting the living folk
vernacular, a fact which not only contributed to the paper's wider circu¬
lation, but was also decisive in changing the style of Persian prose writing.
This was due mainly to Dehkhodä's sensitivity to and understanding of
the popular attitudes and problems and his ability to be inspired by
and write for the people with utmost directness and sincerity. His social
verse was also published occasionally in the Süre Esräfil.
It is not surprising that such a popular and critical paper coiüd not
continue its pubhcation freely; its fourth issue was seized and rounded
up. The Süre Esräfil was suppressed for a month and a half but with a
somewhat concihatory preface was able to resume publication, and
continued to come out until 22 Jomädä I, 1326 H. (June 22, 1908)
reaching its 32nd issue when it came to an abrupt end with the martyr¬
dom of WErzä Jahängir Khän.
After the murder of Mirzä Jahängir Khän and certain liberal reformists
and the bombardment and closure of the Parliament, Mohammad 'Ali
Shäh Qäjär banished a group of constitutional partisans, including
Dehkhodä, to Europe.' In Paris Dehkhodä associated with Mohmmad
Qazvini. He then removed to Switzerland and foUowed in the footsteps
of his martyred friend and in the smaU town of Yverdon brought out
three more issues of the Sure Esräfil. In the first issue of the 2nd volume
he satirized Mohmmad 'Ali Mirzä savagely and foUowed suit in the later
two numbers reveahng further the corruption of the Qäjär estabhsh¬
ment and Iranian society.*
Dehkhodä never desisted in his efforts. After leaving Switzerland, he
went to Istanbul where, with the copious assistance of a group of Irani¬
ans, he published flfteen issues of the Sorüsh. Soon thereafter the Con¬
stitutional reformists met with victory. They took Tehrän and over¬
threw Mohammad 'Ah Shah's regime. Dehkhodä was elected member of
« Lexically, Dekhov means a sheriff. In common usage, however, it applies
to a Qazvini simpleton about whom there are many humorous anecdotes in
folk tradition similar to those of Mollä Nasreddin and Johi. The choice of
such a pseudonym is appropriate from several view points.
' When Dehkhodä was exiled he felt apprehensive about the livelihood
of his close relatives and wrote several letters to his friends concerning this
issue. Two of these letters have recently been published in Rähnemäye
Ketäb 12 (1348) (1969), pp. 311—312, 461—463. They are highly readable
and revealing.
8 The 3rd issue of the Süre Esräfil new edition came out in Safar 15,
1327H. (March 8, 1909).
120 Gholam Hoseyn Yotjsofi
parliament from Tehrän and Kermän. He returned to Iran immediately
to take his seat in the Assembly.
In the universal confusion which resulted from World War I — which
also affected Iran — Dehkhodä lived in isolation in one of the villages in
the Chahärmahäl Bakhtiyäri region. After the termination of hostilities
he came to Tehrän but forsook all activities in social and pohtical verse
and journalism, devoting himself entirely to literary and cultural work.®
In the following years he headed, all too briefly, the Ministry of Education
secretariat. He was then appointed to the deanship of the CoUege of
Political Science which he later gave up to engage for the remainder of
his life in study and research. He died in Tehrän in 1334 H. (Solar)
(1375 H. Lunar).
In his literary life, too, Dehkhodä was hyperactive and indefatigable.
He seldom remained intellectually inactive. Even while in temporary
retirement in Chahärmahäl, he compiled a French-Persian dictionary
and translated Montesqieu's Spirit of the Laws.
His notable and valuable works include Amthälo Hekam (Proverbs
and Exempla), and Loghat Näme (The Lexicon). He edited numerous
Persian verse and prose texts. The scholarly articles he has written aU
are the product of forty five years of study and research in Persian
literature and bear witness to his love of the language and culture of his
native land." In brief, Dehkhodä's prominence in political writing was
evenly matched by his achievements in the field of Persian literary
scholarship. He has been justifiably compared to Säheb Ebn-'Abbäd,!!
and Louis Massignon has described his Lexicon as a ,, Herculean"
effort."
The foregoing prefatory matter was given by way of reminder to
Dehkhodä's somewhat tumultuous life and his background. The main
purpose of the present paper, however, is an investigation of his social
criticism series titled "Idle Talk" (Charand Parand).^^
* * *
' Ra'di Adabakhshi writes: "As far as I know, only in tbe year 1340H.
(1921—1922), in a few numbers ofthe Shafaqe Sorkh some of current proverbs
and exempla were published with satirical modifications in the manner of
'Obeyd Zäkäni." Yaghmä 22 (1348) (1969), p. 10.
1° See: Dehkhodä's Collected Poems. "Introduction" (by M. Mo'In).
Tehrän 1334 (1955); pp. 6—14.
11 S. Hasan Taqizädb: Collected Poetry of Näser Khosrow. Eds. S.N.
TaqavI and M. Mmovr. Tehran 1307 (1928), p. 613; "Introduction" to
Loghat Näme, p. 396.
12 See: Dehkhodä's Collected Poems, "Introduction," p. 32.
1' The late Sa'id Nafisi has extracted these essays from the Süre Esräfil
and included them in Shähkärhäye Nathre Färsl. Tehrän 1330, Vol. 1,
pp. 20—115. The reference here is to the above collection.
Dehkhodä was blessed with a sharp satirical sense and the capability
to detect the comic aspects of everjdihing. This is a rare gift not within
everyone's reach. Among thc contemporaries Dehkhodä and Sädeq
Hedäyat were particularly notable in their possession of this quality.
In Dehkhodä's prose and verse there is a happy combination of wit
and socio-pohtical acumen. In other words, his interest in social affairs
and his sympathy with the masses were together the driving force of the
kind of satire that he wrote and is now perpetuated in the annals of
Persian literature. Ra'di Adabakhshi writes: "Dehkhodä was basically
inchned to social satire and humor not only in his verse and prose but
also in his informal conversation. Because the earher period of the
Constitutional movement was more receptive of this kind of writing,
Dehkhodä's talents evolved either by inchnation or force of circum¬
stance, in the direction of social criticism in both serious and light-
hearted trends, producing specimens of exquisite eloquence, mastery,
effectiveness and economy of words. As that period drew to a close,
the possibilities that it offered became non-existent, "i*
There is an apt description of the high priest of the Shaft Mosque in
the narrative verse titled Enshäallah gorbe ast (By Grace of God, It's a
Cat) which is a telling example of Dehkhodä's power in comic character
sketching of those perfidious religious men who are "hke a barrel, all
belly from head to foot :" ( päy tä sqr cho khom tamäm shekam ):
Hick na joz 'amäme vo shekami, kalami dakhm har faräze khoml.
Bar zabän dhekro khätamash bey amin, sobhe dar dasto pinebär jabin.
Az dosü gardokhäke rah bizän, shälo bände ezär ävlzän.
Pirhan shükhgen, qabä näpäk, ästinhä goshäde vo yaqe chäk.
Nothing but a tummy and turban,
A thick cabbage perched upon a barrel.
Prayer upon his tongue, holy ring on finger.
Rosary in hand, his forehead is calloused with prayer. ,
He raises dust as he waddles along His shawl and knickers string flapping.
His shirt is soiled, his cape filthy.
Sleeves long and wide and collar loose.
" "Undeniably, some of Dehkhodä's humorous verse show the influence of
some of the writers of the Turkish Magazine, Mollä Nasroddin, published in
Baku, particularly that of Säber Shirväni, the writer of "Hop Hop Näme" —
Yaghmä 22 (1348) (1969), pp. 11—12.
122 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi
He goes on in the same vein to describe His Grace's beard, "his open
collar and wide trouser-ends," the scene at the mosque and the dis¬
ciples and their never-ceasing litany of "Pair us off with Houris of Para¬
dise, 0 Lord!" Particularly funny is the episode in which His Grace and
his cape-handed down from father to son for five generations are watered
upon by an animal whose genus cannot be readily determined and he
has many thoughts and doubts as to whether the miscreant has been
an untouchable canine or something else.^* It is this very poem that has
aroused Mohammad Qazvtni's admiration to the point of declaring it
"undoubtedly one of the masterpieces of modern literature."!'
There is an ample supply of perceptive humor displayed in such
poems as Dänam, dänam;" (I Know, I Know) Äkabläy^^ and Khäk
be saram bachche be hush ämade (Alas and Woe, the Child Hath Waked !.)!»
In all of these compositions, whether comic or serious, Dehkhodä
pays close attention to social problems and exhibits his unwavering
sympathy for the suffering of the masses.
In his elegy on Mirzä Jahängir Khän in Süre Esräfil he stipulates that
this martyr's only guilt was his relentless pursuit of the truth. He
deplores the prevalence of ignorance and hopes for the impending
outbreak of the golden dawn of truth heralding an epoch in which op¬
pression is annihilated and God re-establishes His divine rule. He fore¬
sees the day in which man is made more aware of the extinct light of the
ages past and those who perished in the wilderness "searching for the
promised land."
In such other poems as Shekweye pirzäl (The Old Woman's Complaint),*"
Dar change dozdän^^ (Captive to Bandits) and a dramatic sketch called
the "The Governor of Atak,"** he assails the corruption and cruelty of
the ruling establishment and its parasitic elements. At one point he
summons the lovers of liberty: "Come, Come, Freedom withers,"** and
later in a morbid mood, he seeks refuge in nihilism:
Yaqln kardami marg agar nlstlst azln varfe khodrä rahänldaml.
Marin ma'dane khärokhas ra bejäy
hedin khosh'alaf galle mänidamP*
" Collected Poems, p. Sff.
1« Mehr 1 (1312) (1923) No. 5, p. 396.
" Collected Poems, p. 4411.
" Ibid, pp. 124—12,5.
" Ibid, p. 127£f. Ibid, p. 31.
" Ibid, p. 32ff.
" Ibid, p. 6 Iff.
2' Ibid, p. 97.
" Ibid, p. 135.
If I could ascertain death to be total non-existence,
I would betake myself out of this dungeon ;
This thom and thistle would I abandon
A greener pasture to seek.
In brief, an examination of Dehkhodä's verse reveals many aspects of
his gift for writing constructive satire and also the fact that he was a
poet committed to the social causes. We may now tmn to Dehkhodä's
meardngful prose series, so aptly titled Charand parand, which appeared
in the Süre Esräfil.
* * *
The Charand parand series must be read and re-read to be suflSciently
understood and appreciated. Therefore, brief selections have been
chosen here for discussion.
An important facet of Dehkhodä's writing is his all-embracing aware¬
ness of the entire spectrum of social phenomena. He is interested in
whatever that touches the people's lives and destiny, from high level
governmental affairs all the way to popular traditions, customs and
behefs. The Charand parand is no doubt the product of a well-informed,
perceptive and discriminating intellect. It also shows the writer's imme¬
diate interest in foreign pohcy and totally responsible and committed
attitude towards the good of his nation. This is where Dehkhodä differs
significantly from his predecessors. Formerly writers either placed their
talents at the disposal of the ruling class, or used them in mere literary
pastime. Poets and hterati were traditionally classed as servants, enter¬
tainers, jesters — they were luxuries to be enjoyed at whim by their
patrons. Dehkhodä, on the contrary, sided with the people at a consider¬
able risk to his own life and liberty. It is true that the revolutionary
movement caused many writers to see the light and convert to the cause
of freedom, but Dehkhodä remains outstanding among the contemporary
men of letters in that from the beginning of his career, he shunned the
favors of the rich and the mighty, attaching himself to the national
front.**
As an enlightened thinker, Dehkhodä knew that respite can come
to a nation only in a sweeping, integrated reform which embraces every
segment of the society. Therefore he scrutinized his surroundings from
every possible angle and kept a close watch for signs of social and moral
2* In one of the letters written to friends recommending his relatives when he was being banished, he writes: "This appeal is made by one who resisted
the temptations of high office and the promise of considerable fortunes for
two years and did not exchange his honor for the worldly goods." — Rähne¬
mäye Ketäb 12 (1348) (1969), pp. 312, 463.
124 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi
degeneracy which he revealed with remarkable bluntness and campaigned
for its removal.
Charand parand deals with a staggering range of social ills : corruption and treasonable conduct in government officials, inequities perpetrated upon the people, foreign intervention, the hypocritical administration
which tried to overthrow the very constitution it had sworn to uphold,
threats to the freedom of belief and expression, indifference to national
interest among the members of Parhament, public guUibility, lack of
distinction between democracy and despotism, misconduct of the clergy,
bribery of the press, inadequate roads and communication facilities,
class discrimination, immorality, superstition, illiteracy — especially
among women, malpractices in raising children, inadequacies in training
divinity students and their senseless, convoluted prose style, drug
addiction, shortage in supply and poor quahty of bread in Tehrän and a
thousand other topics. These were either the social evils that plagued the
populace or were the misfortunes which the intellectuals felt and con¬
sidered it their duty to pinpoint and eradicate.
In Dehkhodä's writing a thorough acquaintance with the nation's
hopes, fears, joys and sorrows, its pathetic ignorance and backwardness
is demonstrated, this makes him a well-rounded popular writer. He
completely identifies with his people and this fact contributes even
further to the universal acceptance of his writings. Along with Dehkliodä,
another journalist, Seyyed Ashrafoddin Hoseyni, the hberal editor of
the Nasime ShomäP^ also enjoyed vast popularity due to faithful mir¬
roring of public outlook in his satiric verse. "When his editions went on
sale, there was virtually a general rush to buy them. His paper circu¬
lated from hand to hand among people from all walks of life. Even the
ilhterate hstened to it as it was read out in public gatherings."*' This
poet-journalist was also very sensitive and witty. Dehkhodä published
some of his poems in the Nasime shomäl. Among them is the ode Maktvb
az Qazvin Missive From Qazvin which opens with these hnes :
Be 'arsh mlrasad emrüz dtamäne Dekhov.
Besükht dar ghame mashrüfe ostokäne Dekhov.^^
Dekhov's woeful cry reaches heaven
His bones are scorched in his grief for the State.
2« S. Ashrafoddin Hoseyni (1288—1353 H.) (1871—1934). Some of his
poetry is collected in : Bäghe Behesht and Nasime Shomäl. The bulk of his
poetry exceeds 20,000 lines.
" S. Nafisi in: Sapld-o-Slyäh (Shahrivar, 1344) quoting from Edward
Browne: The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia. Cambridge 1914, trans¬
lated by M. 'Abbäsi. Tehrän 1335, p. 122. See also H. Yaghmä Yi in: Yagh¬
mä 21 (1347) (1968), pp. 706—709.
2* See The Press and Poetry . . ., (trans.), pp. 140—142.
Dehkhodä's writing is peopled with ordinary folk just as they are,
without sentimental idealization. The members of the titled aristocracy
are not mentioned except to be ridiculed, travestied and criticized for
their indifference to general welfare. As such, Dehkhodä's writings and
those of Seyyed Ashraf Hoseyni, are true reflections of the constitutional
era and indispensable reading for understanding the mentality of the
period and the direction of the public sentiment, something which has
been generally ignored in formal histories of the period.
To be understood by the people, obviously one must write in the
popular vernacular. This fact which is a commonplace today, was indeed
an innovation at Dehkhodä's time. The literati of thc age were woefully
preoccupied with literary ostentations and indulgence, which is usually
the case when language and letters are used as mere instruments of plea-
eure for the high society. Dehkhodä, on the other hand, chose to write in
folk language. He shunned the formalistic and Arabesque style of the
clergy and by exploiting the full scope of folkloric idiom, created a new
style based on genuine and durable foundations. This was inevitable be¬
cause whenever the ideals and spirit of literature change, its form changes.
Dehkhodä is one of the undisputed leaders of modern Persian prose.
He was instrumental in a revitalization of contemporary language
usage which was moribund in its ornate and haughty irrelevance. This
was made possible by Dehkhodä's erudition and his complete command
of both formal classics and folklore. This gave him an astounding inter¬
pretative acumen which is displayed in his writing. In later years, when
his invaluable Amthälo Hekam was published, his vast store of know¬
ledge was even further demonstrated.
Dehkhodä uses his simple language to great advantage. His des¬
criptions of od-dovleh, Kermänshäh's governor, his merry¬
making feast, the ministers' summer houses in Shemirän, the beheading
of a young man in front of the governor's mansion in Kermänshäh and
the mournful cry of the victim's mother, burning villages and hordes of
fleeing peasants*' and many other such pictures have reahstically and
effectively been depicted by Dehkhodä.
In Dehkhodä's time formal education was based on a knowledge of
Arabic and most contemporary writing was heavily laced with Arabic
words and quotations. In the Süre Esräfil No. 16 Dehkhodä criticises
this practice in a novel manner implying that the clergy use a language
incomprehensible to ordinary people. In the same article he derides the
outlook of the fanatical muUas and their readiness to excommunicate
whatever they find in confiict with their interest.*"
2» No. 30. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre Färslye Mo'ä^er, Vol. 1, pp. 102, 103.
»° Ibid, I, pp. 55—57.
126 Gholam Hoseyn Youson
Dehkhodä's style, while simple, and easy to understand, is far from
vulgar and trite. His choice of words and verbal juxtapositions are novel
but famihar. Sentences are short and choppy; yet they fall into the
normal patterns of spoken language. He uses the words with virtuosity
and the overaU effect is that of originality and a refreshing sincerity.
What constitutes the most outstanding feature of Charand parand is
the choice and presentation of subject matter. For instance, in a section
called Maktube Shahri City Mail he quotes Azad Khäne Kerendi as
relating that in his youth he gained knowledge and learning through
study and once, "reading in a book that one must profess a faith, I
asked an eminent mulla what rehgion was. He said Islam. I asked what
Islam meant. He prattled at length. I absorbed what he uttered. This,
he said, was the Mushm faith." Dehkhodä then goes on to say that when
in various circumstances people raise the cry of "Faith is lost!" they
reaUy mean what they think as religion is threatened and that is often
their personal interest. *'
In another letter Dehkhodä — innovatively attacks the institution of
conferring resounding titles upon the members of the upper class. He
writes of an episode in ancient times when, there were no title-bearing
nincompoops in Iran there occurred a battle between the Persians and
the Greeks. The Persians had set siege to a citadel which proved except¬
ionally difficult to take until a traitorous Greek named Ephialtes showed
them the way to penetrate the defences of the city. "The Greeks called
him traitor," he writes, "and shed his blood ... But what the devil!
I dont't know why whenever I hear this Greek's name I am reminded of
certain people in Iran!" He then adds that the Greek name was be¬
stowed upon a certain personage, since he had no title and because he was
exceptionally tasteful, he deserved an original one! He then says that
many others asked for the same title claiming that they were fully
qualified for it !**
In yet another missive, under the title of Ekhterä'e jadid, he writes
with mock seriousness : "An Austrian dentist by the name of Auf Schnei¬
der who has heard of the quahty of bread in Tehrän has invented a kind
of steel to protect the teeth. By employing this sheath dentures can
operate as a mill with four steam horse power and be capable of grinding
stone clfips, pebbles and bits of masonry." He then proceeds, with a
completely straight face, to give a veritable-looking address of the
inventor in Austria.** In another place he writes, "Us country folk
won't be civilized unless we go to town." He then recounts some of the
" No. 6. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre , Vol. 1, pp. 29—31.
*2 No. 2. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre , Vol. 1, pp. 23—24.
No. 3. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre Vol. 1, p. 25.
city events through the idiom of the country bumpkin, OyärqoK, and makes his point satirically.**
In the Süre Esräfil No. 18 he tackles the question of the 'Amcdeye
khcdvat (Companions of the Privy Chamber) by writing "0 privy to all
secrets and mysteries ! Dost thou know what a companion of the privy
chamber is?" He then writes that all members of any species are alike
exept the genus "Companion of the Privy Chamber" which can assume
any shape and form. He then describes a fresh-faced fifteen-year-old at
one extreme and a big burly 35 to 40-year old at another.
Talking of the degree of eminence and respect that Babrl Khän,
Nä§eroddin, thc Qäjär Shäh's favorite cat enjoyed, Dehkhodä writes
that sycophantic governors of provinces who wished to win the Shäh's
favor paid exuberant homage to the cat and people hung supphcatory
letters around its neck!** "This," he writes, "is yet another companion
of the privy chamber!" He then reports ofthe plenipoteniary ofthe Qom
Shrine who amassed a force of four thousand armed men against the
Emopean laws and in support of the laws of the Holy Koran. Evidently
what His Grace meant was that "the parhament was the law of infidel
Europeans and only the exploits of Babri Khän the Cat were in total
accordance with the laws of the Koran!"** Sometimes Dehkhodä makes
use of folk expressions and jargon, giving a sharp edge to his criticism.
Another example of Dehkhodä's innovative talent in the use of folk
proverbs is demonstrated in No. 25 of the Süre-Esräfil. There is a com¬
mon folk medical dictum that "melons and honey should not be eaten
together as they do not agree with each other and cause stomach upset."
Dehkhodä writes: "A fellow did not take heed and ate them together.
An hour later a friend saw him suffering from the inevitable consequence.
Said the friend, 'Didn't I tell you they don't agree?' Rephed the glutton,
'But now they have agreed together and are uprooting me!'" Dehkhodä
then enumerates social classes and positions and comes up with two
main categories of "chiefs of the nation and principals of government,
both having a common pursuit: to mge the nation to work, be exposed to
extremes of weather, go without a shirt on its back and then hand the
fruits of its toil over to these worthies!" Dehkhodä finds that they are
»* No. 7 and 8. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre Vol. 1, pp. 33—38.
3» This is strongly reminiscent of the favorite chimpanzee of Zubaida,
Härün ar-Rashid's spouse. See also : Ebn Esfandiyär : Tärikhe Tabareatän.
Ed. by 'Abbäs Eqbäl. Tehrän 1320, Vol. 1, pp. 92—93; al-Husri: Zahr al-
ädäb wa thamar al-albäb. Ed. by Muhammad Muhyiaddin 'Abdalhamid.
Cairo 1372—74, Vol. 4, p. 988. Abu 'l-'Alä' al-Ma'arri: Risälat al-Ghufrän.
Ed. by Bint ash-Shäti'. Cairo 1950, p. 446.
»» Shähkärhäye Nathre . . ., Vol. 1, 58—61.
128 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi
like melons and honey whieh have agreed together and are uprooting
the nation.*'
In a letter to the editor Dehkhodä attacks lawyers. He refers to an
everlasting quarrel between his own (imaginary) parents and its under¬
lying cause which, as he later finds out, is due to the fact that his father,
formerly a muUa and legal counciUor in the district, had tricked his
mother into a forced marriage. She had been involved in an inheritance
case and had enlisted his services to represent her in the proceedings
with fuU powers of the attorney. Taking advantage of his authority he
had wedded her without even her knowledge, let alone consent. Deh¬
khodä extends his fear and mistrust of attorneys and representatives to
include the members of parliament who "represent" the nation.**
There are very few of the articles in Charand parand that do not begin
with winsome inventiveness. In one contribution, dealing with pervasive
ignorance among women, Dehkhodä wants to know why, despite explicit
rehgious dicta concerning the education of women, the matter has been
relegated to neglect and oblivion by the leaders of the country. "All
this," he says, "is because Iranian mothers have an unshakable faith in
a weU-used earthen pot." He discusses the infiuence mothers have in
their children and writes :
"Our ministers and politicians know well that if Iranian women get
together, attend schools, and be educated, they will soon realize that
clean, freshly scrubbed pots are better than those with thick layers of
soot and grease on the outside and inside, collected there through many
years of uninterrupted use. Once this belief takes foot among women, it
may find its reflection among their progeny and the sons may lose their
faith in old, well-established pillars of state and insist to know why
ministers and statesmen always seem to come from a small, selected
coterie.""
In another article Dehkhodä conjectures that the reason for the
opposition on the part of Iran's neighbours to building a railway is that
these powerful neighbours have condescended to protect and preserve
not only the weaker and poorer nations, but also to look after the wel¬
fare of arumals and beasts of burden. If we build a railway, then :
"Thousands and thousands of donkeys, mules, camels, nags, etc. will be jobless. These poor creatures have no means of voicing their grievances
in the press and protest against unemployment. But Europeans aro just
and humane. So they instructed their embassies to make it known to
*' Ibid, I, 86—89.
'8 No. 22. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre Vol. 1, 76—78.
»» No. 31. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre . .., Vol. 1, 104—105.
these barbarous Iranians that if they do not abandon their plans to build railways and thus do the poor beasts out of their jobs, Europeans will over-run their country and, in strict accordance with internationtd law, devour them one by one."*"
To give variety and color to his Charand parand Dehkhodä creates
many personae such as Damdami^^ (Mr. Capricious), Kharmagas (Gadfly),
Sage Hasan Daleh (Hasan Daleh's Dog), OyärqoH, Azäd Khäne Korde
KerendT, His Grace MoUä 'Eynak'aH, jenäbera'ise Zangzade (His Excel¬
lency Chief Rusty), Nokhode har äsh (Pea-In-Every Pot), etc. AU these
characters speak in accordance with their aUegorical significance. Some¬
times they are all rounded up in one article. They talk and act as if they
are the members of the Sure Esräfil' s editorial board.**
It is worthy of note that Dehkhodä, more than sixty years ago, used
the same technic and style which are used today by Ikaj Pezeshkzäd
(A. P. ÄSHNÄ) in his satirical column, äsmün rismün (Cock and BuU).
Pezeshkzäd has often been parodied in recent years but nothing has
come anywhere close to his tastefulness and perception.
It is a common practice now in serious and comic journalism to
pubhsh a year-end report and review of the world events. Decades ago,
Dehkhodä used the same practice in the Sure Esräfil Nos. 26 and 27 in
an article titled Sälnäme Yearbook, in which he juxtaposed, without
expUcit comment, some events taking place in Iran and abroad. Example :
"During the year just ended, English women made valorous attempts
in gaining political rights by arranging huge demonstrations and
publishing numerous books and articles. And in Qazvin, one evening
the wife of Mollä Mohammad, a Chanter of Holy Agonies, was aimoyed
and impatient because her husband's visitor had overstayed his wel¬
come and showed no inchnation to depart although it was well past
dinner time. She was hungry and sleepy; the children nagged her for
their supper. So she rummaged through one of the kid's hair and
hunted a louse as big as a lentil. She tiptoed to the entrance of the
drawing room where the men had left their shoes and dropped it into
the unwelcome guest's shoe in compliance with the common belief that
such an act would make an unwanted visitor depart. And sure enough,
the guest jumped up and bolted. In less than two minutes supper was
served."*'
As already mentioned, Dehkhodä Hved in exile in Switzerland for a
while where he continued the publication of the Süre Esräfil. In Issue
*» No. 29. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre .... Vol. 1, 97—100.
*i No. 5. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre Vol. 1, 26—28.
*2 No. 15 and 21. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre .... Vol. 1, 51—54 and 76.
*' Shähkärhäye Nathre. . ., Vol. 1, 89.
g ZDMG 125/1
130 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi
No. 3, to show the ignorance of Mohammad 'AH Mirzä, he pubhshed an
imaginary letter sent by Mohammad 'Ali Mirzä to the Swiss parhament.
In his benighted illiteracy, the Prince thinks that the Swiss parliament is
an individual. So he addresses it as "His Most Exalted Excellency"
('Ali jähe 'ezzat hamräh), and asks that "certain subversive elements and
enemies of Faith and State who now live within the territories of Your
Most Gracious Excellency be rounded up and publicly flagellated in
front of the Capitol." FinaUy he writes, "In order to augment your
gratitude and secure your aUegiance, We bestow upon Your ExceUency,
from Our Personal Wardrobe, a set of robes made of gilded and ornamen¬
ted silken cloth, to adorn your Honored Person withal and feel proud
and glorified among your peers."**
*
Many critical points in Charand parand are so masterfuUy implied
that they get across more eloquently than if they had been explicitly
stated. This is one ofthe achievements of Dehkhodä's eatire. The Writer,
whUe seemingly following a hne of arguments, leads the reader to such
conclusions which he is apparently not intended to draw.
Dehkhodä's bag of tricks always yields biting hints. He writes: "The
readers cannot find anyone less indiscrete than Dekhov. What business
of mine is it to write ...". And while he constantly advises himself
against voicing the readers' complaints concerning social evils, he writes
about them openly.** Sometimes, however, Dehkhodä's satire is so
image-ridden and over-aUusive that it borders on complexity and long-
windedness.
On the other hand, Dehkhodä shows remarkable aptness in comic
aUegorical naming of his characters. There is one caUed Kamineye
asirol javäl*« Dame Caught-in-the-Bag and another, Mashhad! rish
deräze 'aql bedOr, Mashhadi Longbeard-Witless.*' It is this very same
Dame Caught-in-the-Bag who writes to Dekhov asking advice for the
health of her only son who, she thinks, has fallen victim to the evU eye.
He has lost aU his zest for mischief and does not participate with his
comrades in acts of destruction and nuisance. Dekhov suggests that he
he subjected to donkey manure fumes and if he does not improve, be
taken to the local witch doctor.** In this letter and Dekhov's answer
" Ibid, I, 113—115.
*" Ibid, I, 62—64. See also: Süre Esräfil, No. 19.
*« No. 11. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre . . ., Vol. 1, 40.
*' No. 11. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre . .., Vol. 1. 42.
*« No. 11. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre . .., Vol. 1, 39—40.
to it, Dehkhodä criticizes the prevalence of superstition among women.
There are other epistles of the same type.
Dehkhodä's criticism, however, is not always in the form of inference
and innuendo ; sometimes he attacks openly and directly. This is parti¬
cularly true of his writings in the new series of the Süre Esräfil which
was published in Switzerland. It seems that the distance from Iran and
the open atmosphere of Switzerland, along with his outrage and disgust
with the murder of Mirzä Jahängir Khän gave more force and bluntness
to his criticism.
In the second issue of the same series, in an editorial under the title
of "Political Economy," he addresses Adam Smith, the famous econo¬
mist (1723—1790), and questions his theory that wealth is generated by
natural resources, labor and capital; Mohammad 'AH Mirzä, says he,
has other ways of generating wealth, such as accepting bribes or the sale
of government munitions in cattle markets and then arresting and
fining the buyers and confiscating the guns. In this article Dehkhodä
ridicules the disorderly state of economy and depletion of general
coffers. This fierce attack continues in the copy of Mohammad 'Ali
Mirzä's imaginary letter to the Swiss Parhament which was mentioned
earlier.*' Altogether, the Yverdon editions of the Süre Esräfil are more
pointed and devastating.
* * *
In later years Dehkhodä, the writer of Charand parand, gave up
writing social commentary and devoted all his time to literary work and
scholarship. In reply to some friends who had queried him on his aban¬
doning the Süre Esräfil style of writing, Dehkhodä said: "In this day
and age there are many who are interested in spending time and energy
in writing verse and prose for newspapers, but very few who are either
wiUing or able to engage in such exhausting and fatiguing enterprises as
Amthälo Hekam and Loghat Näme."^
No matter how much value we may place on Dehkhodä's literary
work, we still cannot help but wish that he had continued his enhght-
ening writing in the interest of the nation. This sense of loss is even
more acutely felt when we look at what some of the later satirists have
^vritten. Their work is mostly bogged down in prurient interests and
vulgarity. In their social satire they are generally reiterative and trite.
Rather than pointing out faults, they seem to popularise them.
" No.2and3. See: Shähkärhäye Nathre ...,Vol. 1,111—113,113—115.
50 Ba'di AdahakhshI in: Yaghmä 22 (1348) (1969), p. 11.
9»
132 Gholam Hoseyn Yousofi, Dehkhodä's Place
The contemporary novehst, Bahräm Sädeqi, has likened Dehkhodä's
Süre Esräfil period and his subsequent scholarly retirement to two
photographs he has seen of Dehkhodä ; the first one, taken in Istanbid
in 1910, shows him as a young man standing erect with a bold and
determined look, purporting his fighting spirit. The second one portrays
him as an elderly man, tired and broken, sitting down, holding a bunch
of reference cards, against a background of shelves stacked with thou¬
sands of papers and other documents.
dem Bhiksuni-Vinaya: die samkaksikä
Von Oskab von Hinübee, Mainz
Bei der Aufnahme in den Orden werden einer buddliistischen Nonne
zusammen mit der Almosenschale fünf Gewänder übergeben: ayan te
patto ayam sämghäti ayam uttaräsango ayam antaraväsako idam sanikacchi-
kam ayam udakasätikä Vin II 272.10ff.! 'dies ist deine Almosenschale,
dies die sämghäti, dies der uttaräsanga, dies der antaraväsaka, dies das
sarnkacchika, dies die Badebekleidung'. Entsprechend lautet die Formu¬
herung im Bhiksurßkarmaväcanä : ... aham evannämikä idarn civararn
sarnghätim adhitisthämi ... evam uttaräsangam antarväsah kusülakarn,
sarnkaksikä adhisthätavyä 15alf.* 'ich, N.N., eigne mir dies Gewand,
eine sarnghäti, an ... ebenso muß man sich uttaräsanga, antarväsa,
hasülaka und sarnkaksikä aneignen.'
Während die drei Gewänder sarnghäti, antarväsa und uttaräsanga von
Mönchen und Nonnen getragen werden*, sind sarnkacchika und udakasä¬
tikä nur für Nonnen vorgeschrieben. Da aus den Vorschriften über die
udakasätikä eindeutig hervorgeht, daß es sich um eine Badebekleidung
handelt*, bereitet allein die Bedeutungsbestimmung von sarnkacchika
Schwierigkeiten. Wörterbücher und Übersetzungen schwanken zwischen
'belt, waist-cloth*', 'vest*', 'undershirt, shift''.
1 Das hier verwendete Abkürzungssystem folgt V. Tbenckneb-D. Andeb¬
sen: A Critical Päli Dietionary (CPD). Vol. 1. Kopenhagen 1924—1948,
Epilegomena.
2 C. M. Ridding-L. de La Vallee Poussin : A Fragment of the Sanskrit-
Vinaya. Bhiksunikarmaväcanä. In: BSOS 1 (1917/1920), S. 123—143.
* Wie die Gewänder getragen werden beschreibt I. B. Hoeneb : The Book
of Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka) . Vol. 2. London 1957, S. 1, Anm. 2.
« Päcittiya XXI, XXII (Vin IV 278f ) verbieten den Nonnen, nackt zu
baden.
* The Päli Text Society's Päli-English Dietionary (PED). Ed. by T. W.
Bhys Davids and W. Stede. London 1921—1925 mit der Bemerkung
'the c. expln. is incorrect,' was sich auf Vin IV 345. 15f. bezieht.
« T. W. Rhys Davids-H. Oldenbebg: Vinaya-Texts. Vol. 3. London
1885, S. 351, I. B. Hoenee: Book of Discipline. Vol. 5. London 1963, S. 376
und CPD s.v. asarnkacchikä.
' F. Edoebton: Bvddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dietionary (BHSD). New
Haven 1953 s.v. sarnkaksikä, der zurecht sich gegen die Bedeutung 'belt' des
PED wendet.
